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>W  ^'' 


Ml.fJ^, 


THE  BOOK  OF  POULTRY 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    ■    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO   •    DALLAS 
ATLANTA   •   SAN  FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON   •    BOMBAY    •    CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA.  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


THE 

BOOK  OF  POULTRY 


With  Seventy  Plates  in  Color  and 
Many  Text  Illustrations 


■N'rm  fork 

THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
1921 

All  rights  reserved 


Copyright,  1912,   1921,  by  International  Textbook  Company 
All  rights  reserved 


International  Textbook  Press 
Scranton,   Pa. 


CONTENTS 


Standard-Bred  Poultry                                       Section  Page 

Breeds  and  Varieties  of  Poultry 1  1 

Jungle  Fowls 1  1 

Ancestry  and  Origin  of  Domestic  Fowls    .    .  1  7 

Standards  of  Poultry 1  10 

Standard  and    Non-Standard   Varieties   of 

Potdtry • 1  14 

Selection  of  Breeding  Stock 1  22 

Selection  of  Breed  for  Foundation  Stock  .    .  1  26 

Variations  in  Exhibition  Poultry 1  32 

Ranges  for  Exhibition  Poultry 1  42 

Houses  and  Coops  for  Exhibition  Poultry     .  1  50 

Principles  of  Poultry  Breeding    ......  2  57 

Definitions      2  57 

Mendel's  Law .  2  60 

Mendelian  Experiments 2  71 

Dominant  and  Recessive  Characters  ....  2  77 
Modem  Methods  of  Producing  Exhibition 

Poultry 2  78 

Influences  Affecting  Offspring 2  78 

Methods  of  Breeding 2  81 

Line  Breeding 2  81 

Inbreeding      2  82 

Strain  Breeding 2  85 

Methods  of  Mating 2  92 

Mating-Chart  System  of  Breeding     ....  2  96 

Plumage  Color  in  Fowls 2  98 

Miscellaneous  Information 2  105 


vi  CONTENTS 

Standard-Bred  Poultry  Management  Section    Page 

Incubation  for  Exhibition  Poultry 3  111 

Influence  and  Control  of  Fertility 3  111 

Natural   Versus   Artificial    Incubation  and 

Brooding 3  117 

Management  in  Incubation 3  118 

Brooding  for  Exhibition  Poultry 3  121 

Feeding  of  Exhibition  Poultry 3  123 

Feeds  for  Exhibition  Poultry  .......  3  123 

Methods  of  Feeding 3  124 

Preparation  of  Fowls  for  the  Show  Room  .    .  3  130 

Selection  of  Fowls  for  Exhibition 3  130 

Deformities — Their  Causes  and  Avoidance  .3  133 

Management  of  Fowls  in  Close  Confinement  3  136 

Care  of  Head  Points 3  138 

Care  of  Shanks  and  Feet 3  143 

Care  of  Plumage 3  146 

Training  of  Fowls  for  the  Show  Room  ...  3     .      149 
Cleaning  of  Fowls  for  the  Show  Room  ...  3  155 
Transportation   and   Show-Room  Manage- 
ment      3  164 

Shipping  Fowls  to  a  Show 3  164 

Management  in  a  Show  Room 3  170 

Care  of  Fowls  After  a  Show 3  171 

Poultry  Judging 

Practice  of  Judging 4  173 

Methods  of  Judging 4  179 

Official-Score-Card  Method 4  181 

Decimal-Score-Card  Method 4  189 

Comparison  Method 4  193 

Details  of  Judging 4  198 

Disqualifying  Defects 4  201 

Procedure  in  Judging 4  207 

Requirements  for  Admission  of  New  Breeds 

to  the  Standard 4  214 

Glossary    of    Technical    Terms    Used    by 

Poultrymen 4  215 


CONTENTS  vii 

American  Fowls                                                     Section  Page 

Plymouth  Rock 5  239 

Barred  Plymouth  Rock 5  240 

Buff  Plymouth  Rock 5  249 

Colimibian  Plymouth  Rock 5  251 

Partridge  Plymouth  Rock 5  254 

Silver  Penciled  Plymouth  Rock 5  255 

White  Plymouth  Rock 5  257 

Non-Standard  Varieties  of  Plymouth  Rock  .  5  259 

Wyandotte 5  262 

Silver  Laced  Wyandotte 5  262 

Golden  Laced  Wyandotte 5  268 

White  Wyandotte 5  269 

Black  Wyandotte 5  272 

Buff  Wyandotte 5  273 

Columbian  Wyandotte 5  275 

Partridge  Wyandotte 5  278 

Silver  Penciled  Wyandotte 5  281 

Non-Standard  Varieties  of  Wyandotte  ...  5  283 

Rhode  Island  Red 5  288 

Rose-Comb  Rhode  Island  Red 5  288 

Single-Comb  Rhode  Island  Red 5  290 

Non-standard  Rhode  Island  Red 5  293 

Dominique 5  294 

Java 5  296 

Black  Java 5  296 

Mottled  Java 5  297 

White  Java 5  298 

Jersey  Blue 5  299 

Buckeye 5  300 

Asiatic  Fowls 

Origin  of  Asiatic  Fowls 6  303 

Brahma       6  304 

Light  Brahma 6  306 

Dark  Brahma 6  319 

Antwerp  Brahma 6  325 

Buff  Brahma  .    , , 0  32^ 


viii  ■  CONTENTS 

Asiatic  Fowls — Continued                                    Section  Page 

Cochin 6  326 

Buff  Cochin 6  329 

Black  Cochin     6  338 

Partridge  Cochin 6  340 

White  Cochin 6  344 

Cuckoo  Cochin 6  345 

Langshan 6  346 

Black  Langshan 6  346 

White  Langshan 6  349 

Blue  Langshan 6  350 

Buff  Langshan 6  350 

Belgian,  Dutch,  and  German  Fowls 

Belgian 7  351 

Braekel • 7  353 

Bruges 7  355 

Campine      7  356 

Herve      7  359 

Malines 7  360 

Miscellaneous  Belgian      7  361 

Dutch      7  363 

Hamburg 7  363 

Black  Hamburg 7  365 

Golden  Penciled  Hamburg 7  369 

Golden  Spangled  Hamburg 7  371 

Silver  Penciled  Hamburg 7  374 

Silver  Spangled  Hamburg 7  376 

White  Hamburg 7  380 

Non-Standard  Varieties  of  Hamburg     ...  7  381 

Red  Cap      7  381 

Non-Standard  Breeds  of  Dutch 7  384 

German 7  387 

Lakenfelder 7  387 

English  Fowls 

Dorking       8  391 

Colored  Dorking 8  392 


,:^                           CONTENTS  ix 

English  Fowls — Continued                                  Section  Page 

Silver-Gray  rDorking 8  395 

White  Dorking 8  398 

Non-Standard  Varieties  of  Dorking   ....  8  400 

Orpington 8  403 

Black  Orpington 8  403 

Buff  Orpington      8  408 

"White  Orpington 8  410 

Jubilee  Orpington      8  413 

Spangled  Orpington 8  414 

Recent  Varieties  of  Orpington 8  415 

Scotch  Gray 8  419 

Scotch  Dumpy 8  421 

Sussex .  8  422 

Light  Sussex 8  424 

Red  Sussex ..:......  8  425 

Speckled  Sussex 8  426 

French,  Polish,  and  Miscellaneous  Fowls 

French 9  427 

Crevecceur 9  428 

Houdan 9  430 

LaFleche 9  433 

La  Bresse 9  434 

Bourbourg,  or  Bourborey 9  436 

Faverolle 9  437 

White  Faverolle 9  439 

Polish 9  441 

White-Crested  Black  Polish 9  442 

Buff  Laced  Polish      9  444 

Bearded  Golden  Polish 9  446 

Non-Bearded  Golden  Polish    .......  9  448 

Bearded  Silver  Polish 9  449 

Non-Bearded  Silver  Polish      9  451 

Bearded  White  Polish       9  451 

Non-Bearded  White  Polish      9  452 

Miscellaneous 9  453 


X  CONTENTS 

French,  Polish,  and  Miscellaneous  Fowls — 

Continued                                                              Section  Page 

Sultan      9  453 

Frizzle 9  454 

Silky 9  456 

Yokohama 9  456 

Naked  Neck 9  458 

Rumpless 9  459 

Game  Fowls 

Introduction 10  461 

Exhibition  Game .10  463 

Birchen  Game 10  465 

Black  Game 10  467 

Black-Breasted  Red  Game      10  468 

Brown-Red  Game  . 10  471 

Duckwing  Game 10  474 

Red  Pyle  Game 10  478 

White  Game 10  480 

Wheaten  Game 10  480 

Cornish  Game 10  481 

Dark  Cornish  Game      10  481 

White  Cornish  Game 10  485 

White-Laced  Red  Cornish  Game 10  486 

Malay  Game      10  488 

Black  Sumatra  Game 10  490 

Non-Standard  Varieties 10  492 

AseelGame 10  492 

Old-English  Game 10  495 

Mediterranean  Fowls 

Origin,  Classification,  and  Distinctive  Char- 
acters   11  501 

Ancona 11  504 

Andalusian   11  508 

Leghorn   11  511 

Black  Leghorn .  11  512 


CONTENTS 

Mediterranean  Fowls — Continued  Sec, 

Brown  Leghorn 1 

Buff  Leghorn      1 

Silver  Leghorn 1 

White  Leghorn 1 

Non-Standard  Varieties  of  Leghorn   .    .    .    .  1 

Minorca       l: 

Black  Minorca 1 

White  Minorca       1 

Non-Standard  Varieties  of  Minorca  .    .    .    .  1 

Spanish 1 

White-Faced  Black  Spanish 1 

White-Faced  White  Spanish 1 


ion  Page 
515 
520 
522 
525 
531 
537 
538 
544 
546 
547 
550 
552 


Bantam  Fowls 

Origin  of  Bantam  Fowls       12  553 

Distribution  and  Development 12  554 

Booted  Bantam '.    .    .  12  555 

Brahma  Bantam 12  557 

Dark  Brahma  Bantam 12  558 

Light  Brahma  Bantam 12  559 

Cochin  Bantam      12  561 

Black  Cochin  Bantam      12  562 

Buff  Cochin  Bantam 12  563 

Partridge  Cochin  Bantam 12  566 

White  Cochin  Bantam 12  567 

Cuckoo  Cochin  Bantam 12  569 

Defects  in  Cochin  Bantams 12  570 

Game  Bantam 12  571 

Birchen  Game  Bantam 12  574 

Black  Game  Bantam 12  576 

Black-Breasted  Red  Game  Bantam   ....  12  577 

Brown-Red  Game  Bantam      12  579 

Duckwing  Game  Bantam 12  579 

Red  Pyle  Game  Bantam       12  580 

White  Game  Bantam 12  581 

Wheaten  Game  Bantam 12  582 

Japanese  Bantam ,  12  582 


xii  CONTENTS 

Bantam  Fowls — Continued                                    Section  Page 

Malay  Bantam      .•    •  12  587 

Old-English  Game  Bantam      ' .    .  12  590 

Polish  Bantam 12  592 

Rose-Comb  Bantam      12  594 

Black  Rose-Comb  Bantam       12  595 

White  Rose-Comb  Bantam      12  597 

Sebright  Bantam 12  599 

Golden  Sebright  Bantam 12  600 

Silver  Sebright  Bantam 12  602 

.  Silk>^  Bantam 12  604 

Miscellaneous  Bantams 12  606 

Fowls  of  the  Pheasant  Family 

Varieties  and  Habits 13  611 

Turkeys       13  612 

Varieties  and  Their  Development 13  613 

Breeding  of  Turkeys 13  616 

Black  Turkey 13  619 

Bourbon  Red  Turkey 13  620 

Bronze  Turkey       13  622 

Buff  Turkey 13  624 

Cambridge  Turkey 13  626 

Narragansett  Turkey 13  626 

Ronquieres  Turkey 13  628 

Slate  Turkey      13  629 

White  Turkey 13  630 

Peafowls      , 13  632 

Black-Winged  Peafowl 13  633 

Common  Peafowl      13  633 

Javan  Peafowl 13  635 

White  Peafowl 13  635 

Guinea  Fowls 13  636 

Pearl  Guinea  Fowl 13  636 

Vultm-ine  Guinea  Fowl 13  637 

White  Guinea  Fowl       13  638 

Miscellaneous  Varieties  of  Guinea  Fowls      .  13  639 


CONTENTS  xiii 

Ducks  and  Geese                                                  Section  Page 

Origin  of  Ducks 14  641 

Aylesbury  Duck 14  642 

Call  Duck 14  645 

Cayuga  Duck 14  646 

Crested  White  Duck 14  647 

East  India  Duck 14  648 

Runner  Duck 14  649 

White  Runner  Duck 14  652 

Muscovy  Duck      14  653 

Pekin  Duck '. 14  655 

Rouen  Duck 14  656 

Swedish  Duck 14  658 

New  Breeds  of  Ducks 14  661 

Origin,  Development,  History,  and  Descrip- 
tion of  Geese      14  664 

African  Goose 14  666 

Chinese  Goose 14  667 

Egyptian  Goose 14  668 

Embden  Goose       14  669 

Toulouse  Goose     14  670 

Wild,  or  Canadian,  Goose 14  671 

New  Breeds  of  Geese 14  672 


LIST  OF  PLATES  IN  COLOR 

Facing  Page 

1.  Red    Jungle    Fowls 4 

2.  Gray  Jungle  Fowls 12 

3.  Ceylon  Jungle  Fowls 24 

4.  Green  or  Forked-Tail  Jungle  Fowls 32 

5.  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks 240 

6.  Pullet-Bred  Male 

Cockerel-Bred  Female      ^^^^^^  Plymouth  Rocks   .  244 

7.  Buff  Plymouth  Rocks   . 248 

8.  Partridge  Plymouth  Rocks 252 

9.  White  Plymouth  Rocks 254 

10.  Silver-Laced    Wyandottes 262 

11.  White   Wyandottes 2G8 

12.  Columbian   Wyandottes 274 

13.  Silver-Penciled   Wyandottes 280 

14.  Rhode  Island  Reds 288 

15.  Dominiques 294 

16.  Light  Brahmas ,  306 

17.  Dark  Brahmas 318 

18.  Buff  Cochins 328 

19.  Black    Cochins 338 

20.  Partridge  Cochins 340 

21.  White  Cochins 344 

22.  Black   Langshans 346 

23.  White  Langshans 348 

24.  Silver    Campines 356 

25.  Golden-Penciled    Hamburgs 368 

26.  Silver-Penciled  Hamburgs 370 

27.  Silver-Spangled  Hamburgs 376 

28.  Silver-Gray  Dorkings 394 

29.  White  Dorkings 398 

30.  Black  Orpingtons 402 

31.  Buff    Orpingtons .  408 

32.  White  Orpingtons 410 

33.  Crevecoeurs 428 

34.  Hbudans .• 430 


XV 


xvi  LIST  OP  PLATES  IN  COLOR 

Facing  Page 

35.  La   Fleche 432 

36.  Salmon    Faverolles -.    .    .  436 

37.  White-Crested  Black  Polish 442 

38.  Bearded  Silver  Polish 448 

39.  Black-Breasted  Red  Games 468 

40.  Silver  Duckwing  Games 474 

41.  Aseel  and  Cornish  Games 480 

42.  Malay  Games  and  Bantams 488 

43.  Anconas 504 

44.  Andalusians 508  . 

45.  Brown  Leghorns 514 

46.  Rose-Comb  Buff  Leghorns 520 

47.  Single-Comb  White  Leghorns 524 

48.  Single-Comb  Black  Minorcas 536 

49.  Rose-Comb  White  Minorcas 544 

50.  White-Faced  Black  Spanish 548 

51.  Dark  and  Light  Brahma  Bantams 558 

52.  Cochin    Bantams 562 

53.  Game  Bantams 574 

54.  Duckwing,  Pyle,  and  White  Game  Bantams  ....  578 

55.  Yokohama  and  Japanese  Bantams 582 

56.  Polish  Bantams 592 

57.  Rose-Comb  and  Sebright  Bantams •  .  5j)6 

58.  Bantams,  Silky,  Old  English  Game,  Frizzle,  Boot^d,^,.,, 

Sultan .    ,^^.    .  >4 

59.  Bronze    Turkeys .    ."^^  ^^'^''■ 

60.  Narragansett  and  Black  Turkeys '"^^^"^ 

61.  White  Turkeys -jO 

62.  Pea  Fowl  and  Guinea  Fowl 634 

63.  Aylesbury  and  Pekin  Ducks t,  642 

64.  Runner  Ducks 648 

65.  Muscovy  Ducks 652 

66.  Rouen  Ducks 656 

67.  Canadian  and  African  Geese 664 

68.  White  and  Brown  Chinese  Geese 666 

69.  :E^mbden  Geese 668 

70.  Toulouse  Geese 670 


THE  BOOK  OF  POULTRY 


BREEDS  AND  VARIETIES  OF  POULTRY 


EARLY  VARIETIES  OF  FOWLS 


JUNGLE    FOWLS 

1.  Jungle  fowl  is  the  name  applied  to  the  wild  fowls  from 
which  it  is  claimed  that  the  present  varieties  of  fowls  descended. 
At  the  present  time  io\xr  varieties  of  jungle  fowls  are  recog- 
nized: the  red  jungle  fowl  of  India  (Gallus  hankivus),  the  gray 
jungle  Jowl  of  India  (gallus  Sonneratii) ,  the  Ceylon  jungle  fowl 
{Ga^'  "  Lafayettii),  and  the  green,  or  forked-tail,  jungle  fowl 
(C  r  fw^catus,  or  varius).  Naturalists  claim  that  another 
fowl  i"      ^^'  ^^®  gigantic  cock  ((Callus  giganteus),  existed  at  one 

2,  Red  Jungle  Fowl. — ^The  wild  red  jungle  fowl  has 

been  '  .  d  in  its  purity  in  captivity,  and  is  well  known  in  many 
sections  of  the  world.  Some  of  the  most  beautiful  specimens 
of  this  fowl  have  been  bred  by  Nelson  R.  Wood  at  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution.  These  birds  were  quite  domestic,  and  a 
person  who  was  not  well  informed  on  this  subject  would  call 
them  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  Bantam  fowls.  In  fact,  the 
red  jungle  fowl  very  closely  resembles  in  color  and  markings 
the  black-breasted  red  game  fowl  of  former  days,  and  is  much 
more  like  the  latter  than  any  of  the  domestic  fowls.    The 

1 


2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 

points  of  difference  between  these  two  varieties  are  that  the 
plumage  colors  of  the  red  jungle  fowl  are  more  brilliant,  and 
the  red  is  usually  deeper  than  is  favored  for  exhibition  game 
bantams.  The  call  of  the  red  jungle  fowl  resembles  the  crow- 
ing of  the  domestic  cock. 

From  different  localities  a  number  of  minor  variations  of  the 
red  jungle  fowl  have  been  reported.  From  India  it  has  been 
reported  that  red  jimgle  fowls  usually  have  horn-colored,  or 
greenish,  shanks,  but  that  some  have  yellow  shanks;  and  also 
that  they  vary  much  in  color,  some  being  black-red,  some 
brown-red,  some  ginger-red,  and  others  a  yellowish  brown. 
These  four  colors  are  common  in  game  fowls  that  may  have 
descended  from  the  red  jungle  fowl.  Lewis  Wright,  a  promi- 
nent investigator,  has  made  note  of  several  other  important 
variations.  He  gives  the  ciurator  of  the  Asiatic  Society's 
Museum  at  Calcutta  as  authority  for  the  statement  that  the 
red  jungle  fowls  from  the  Himalayan  districts  are  paler  in  tint 
than  those  from  other  parts  of  India;  that  those  from  the 
Malayan  peninsula  are  brighter  colored  than  those  from  India; 
that  the  Malay  fowls  had  red  deaf-ears,  and  that  nearly  all 
of  the  Indian  fowls  had  white  deaf -ears,  although  he  stated 
that  he  had  seen  one  Indian  variety  without  this  very  distinct 
character;  that  the  Indian  fowls  had  shanks  of  a' leaden-blue 
color,  and  that  the  shanks  of  the  Malayan  and  Javan  fowls  had 
a  distinct  yellowish  tinge.  Darwin  states  that  the  Malay  hens 
that  he  saw  had  more  red  on  the  breast  than  the  Indian  hens. 
Notwithstanding  these  variations,  the  same  authorities  claim 
thai;  all  the  red  jungle  fowls  closely  resemble  the  Black-Breasted 
Red  Game  fowls. 

3.     Gray  Jungle  Fowl. — The  wild  gray  jungle  fowl  is 

found  in  the  southern  part  of  India.  It  was  formerly  abun- 
dant in  the  forests  of  that  locality  and  was  hunted  by  sports- 
men, who  called  it  the  jungle  cock.  The  true  gray  jungle 
fowl  resembles  the  present-day  domestic  fowl  as  closely  as  do 
the  other  jungle  fowls,  but  it  is  by  nature  very  wild,  and  when 
kept  in  confinement  wiU  not  permit  of  handling,  like  the  red 
jungle  fowl. 


§  1  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  3 

The  general  color  of  the  male  is  gray;  the  feathers,  which  are 
pointed,  are  brown,  laced  with  gray,  and  have  gray  shafts ;  the 
tail  feathers  are  black,  brilliantly  glossed  with  green.  The 
neck  hackle  feathers,  the  feathers  on  the  wing  bows,  and  some 
of  the  saddle  feathers  are  tipped  with  a  glossy  waxlike,  or 
enamellike,  substance  formed  by  the  coalescence  of  the  barbs 
at  the  end  of  the  feather.  These  glossy  tips  are  orange  on  the 
wing  and  saddle  and  pale  yellow  on  the  hackle,  presenting  a 
very  beautiful  appearance.  The  comb,  wattles,  and  face  are 
red;  and  the  beak,  shanks,  and  feet  are  yellow.  The  female  is 
usually  of  a  brown,  or  partridge,  color  on  the  upper  portion  of 
the  body;  on  the  breast  it  is  grayish  white  and  is  laced  by  lon- 
gitudinal bars  of  ruddy  color,  the  grayish  color  gradually  dimin- 
ishing upwards  imtil  at  the  throat  it  becomes  almost  pure 
white.  The  female  of  this  variety  has  a  very  small  comb,  bare 
face,  and  scarcely  any  wattles.  The  lacing  on  the  plimiage  of 
this  variety  resembles  to  a  considerable  degree  the  similar 
markings  on  the  Sebright  Bantam,  Laced  Polish,  and  Wyan- 
dotte fowls. 

The  gray  jungle  fowl  has  been  bred  in  several  different  local:- 
ities,  and  hence  its  characters  are  well  known.  It  will  cross- 
breed with  other  varieties  of  jungle  fowls  and  with  tame  ban- 
tam fowls,  and  the  offspring  of  such  crosses  will  maintain  the 
color  and  markings  of  the  wild  fowl  even  when  they  have  not 
more  than  one-third,  or  even  less,  of  wild  blood  in  their  veins. 

A  marked  difference  between  this  variety  and  the  red  jungle 
fowl  is  in  the  tone  of  the  voice.  As  previously  mentioned,  the 
call  of  the  red  jungle  cock  resembles  that  of  the  domestic 
cock.  The  call  of  the  gray  jungle  cock  is  more  like  the  scream 
of  the  peacock.  The  voice  of  the  gray  jungle  hen  also  is 
different  from  that  of  the  hen  of  other  kinds  of  jungle  fowl. 

At  one  time  it  was  claimed  that  jungle  fowls  would  lay  but 
four  eggs  before  they  would  begin  to  incubate  them,  and  that 
the  eggs  of  these  fowls  would  hatch  in  17  or  18  days  instead  of 
in  the  21  days  required  for  the  incubation  of  the  eggs  of  domes- 
tic fowls.  It  is  now  known,  however,  that  both  the  red  and 
the  gray  jungle  fowls  will  lay  more  than  four  eggs  to  a  nest,  and 
have  bfeen  known  to  lay  as  many  as  eleven;  it  is  also  known  that 


4  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 

their  eggs  will  hatch  in  the  same  length  of  time  as  the  eggs  of 
bantam  fowls,  to  which  fowls  they  correspond  in  size.  The 
eggs  of  red  and  of  gray  jungle  fowls  that  are  placed  imder 
hens  immediately  after  they  are  laid  will  sometimes  hatch  in 
18  days,  but  they  usually  hatch  in  19  days.  The  greater  part 
of  all  bantam  eggs  will  hatch  before  the  end  of  the  twentieth 
day,  thus  indicating  that  this  peculiarity  belongs  naturally  to 
all  bantams  and  not  to  the  wild  varieties  only. 

4.     Ceylon  Jungle  Fowl. — The  wild  Ceylon  jungle  fowl 

is  found  in  Ceylon  and  on  the  southern  slopes  of  Java.  It 
is  like  the  red  jungle  fowl  in  many  respects,  the  two  most 
distinctive  differences  between  them  being  that  the  Ceylon 
jungle  fowl,  in  its  wild  state,  has  a  red  or  brown  breast  and  a 
yellow  center  in  the  comb.  The  Ceylon  jungle  fowl  has  orange- 
red  color  in  its  hackle,  a  yellowish-red  breast,  brownish-white 
shanks,  and  a  bluish-purple  saddle.  The  neck  has  true  hackle 
feathers  and  the  saddle  feathers  are  broad  and  rounded  at  the 
point.  The  comb  of  the  cock  is  short  at  the  base,  but  is  con- 
siderably elongated  along  the  top  or  upper  line ;  the  comb  of 
the  hen  is  very  small.  The  plumage  of  the  hen  is  partridge 
colored.  The  eyes  of  both  the  male  and  the  female  are  pearl 
colored,  resembling,  in  this  respect,  the  Aseel  game  fowls. 
The  wild  Ceylon  jungle  fowls  have  long,  sharp  spurs  and  are 
very  pugnacious.  The  head  of  the  female  resembles  that  of  a 
pheasant  more  than  that  of  a  fowl.  Some  females  have  a  slight 
indication  of  wattles. 

The  color  description  of  the  Ceylon  jungle  fowl  as  published 
in  the  catalog  of  the  British  Museimi  is  as  follows : 

"Adult  Male. — Top  of  the  head,  rufous  orange;  hackles,  upper  part  of 
the  mantle,  and  lesser  wing  coverts,  golden  orange,  with  black  band  down 
middle;  lower  part  of  mantle,  scapulars,  and  median  wing  coverts,  orange 
red,  with  a  dark  maroon  center  stripe;  lower  back  and  rump,  bright  orange 
red,  the  terminal  half  of  each  feather  with  a  bright,  triangular  spot  of  rich 
violet  and  narrowly  margined  with  black;  upper  tail  coverts  glossed  with 
purple  and  blue;  primaries,  brownish  black,  lightest  on  the  outer  web; 
secondaries,  black,  slightly  glossed  with  purplish  blue;  greater  coverts, 
black,  more  or  less  mixed  or  margined  on  the  outer  web  with  dark  chestnut; 
feathers  at  the  base  of  the  naked  throat,  rich  glossy  violet;  chest,  breast, 
and  sides,  like  the  lower  part  of  the  mantle;  feathers  of  the  belly,  chestnut 


§  1  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  5 

mottled  or  tipped  with  purplish  blue.  Comb,  wattles,  and  naked  skin 
about  the  head,  yellowish  or  purplish  red,  the  former  with  a  large  oval 
yellow  spot  on  the  middle  of  the  posterior  half;  bill,  yellow;  feet  and  legs, 
brown.  Total  length,  30  inches;  wing,  9  inches;  tail,  11  inches;  tarsus, 
3  inches. 

"Adult  Female. — The  female  differs  from  the  female  of  the  Callus 
gallus  (or  bankivus)  [red  jungle  fowl]  as  follows:  Edges  of  feathers  of 
neck  and  upper  mantle,  darker,  more  rufous,  and  narrower;  secondaries, 
creamy,  irregularly  barred  with  dark  brown ;  chest  and  sides,  shading  from 
gray  to  fawn,  mottled  with  rufous  buff,  and  with  whitish  shaft  streaks; 
breasts  and  under  parts,  irregularly  shafted  with  black;  tail  feathers, 
rufous,  thickly  mottled  with  brown;  comb,  very  small;  no  wattles;  facial 
skin,  less  naked.  Length,  17  inches;  wing,  7.5  inches;  tail,  4.9  inches; 
tarsus,  2.4  inches." 

5.  Green,  or  Forked-Tail,  Jungle  Fowl. — The  wild 
fowl  known  as  the  green,  or  forked- tall,  jungle  fowl,  fre- 
quents the  island  of  Java  and  is  also  found  in  the  East  Indies. 
But  few  specimens  of  this  variety  have  been  kept  in  captivity. 
The  forked-tail  jungle  fowl  has  the  most  beautiful  plumage  of 
aU  the  jungle  fowls.  A  well-developed  fowl  of  this  variety 
rivals  the  Vulturine  Guinea  fowl  in  the  beauty  of  its  plumage. 
In  both  sexes  the  surface  of  the  hackle  is  metallic  purple,  over- 
laid with  a  brilliant  sheen  of  golden  green.  The  rest  of  the 
body  feathering  is  black,  glossed  with  green,  except  on  the 
tmder  surface.  The  back,  saddle,  and  tail  coverts  shade  from 
orange  to  yellow  and  are  regularly  striped  with  black.  The 
comb  of  the  male  is  of  a  pale  greenish  blue  at  the  base,  shading 
into  a  purplish  pink  along  the  edges ;  in  the  dewlap  these  colors 
are  reversed,  and  there  is  a  patch  of  yeUow  at  its  juncture  with 
the  throat.  This  is  scarcely  visible  when  the  dewlap  is  con- 
tracted, but  is  conspicuous  when  it  is  fully  expanded.  During 
such  expansion  the  face,  which  is  nattirally  flesh  colored, 
changes  to  a  bright  red.  The  eyes  of  both  sexes  are  gray  and 
the  shanks  are  flesh  colored.  The  female  has  neither  comb  nor 
wattles;  her  plumage  is  barred  with  buff  and  black;  the  top  of 
the  head  and  the  back  of  the  neck  is  dark  brown;  the  neck  and 
the  upper  part  of  the  mantle  is  sandy  brown;  the  feathers  of  the 
female  have  submarginal  blackish  bands  and  dusky  center 
stripes,  broken  by  white  shafting;  the  rest  of  the  upper  parts, 
the  secondaries,  and  the  secondary  coverts  are  dark  brown, 


6  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 

irregularly  barred  and  margined  at  the  extremity  with  buff; 
the  primary  quills  and  coverts  are  dark  brown;  the  lobes,  the 
superciliary  stripes,  and  the  sides  of  the  face,  are  pale  buff;  the 
chin  and  throat  are  white;  the  under  parts  are  buff,  the  chest 
feathers  with  brownish  margins  and  the  sides  and  flanks  with 
blackish  mottlings;  the  tail  is  black,  irregularly  edged  with 
buff.  Total  length  of  fowl,  15.3  inches;  wing,  7.7  inches;  tail, 
4.5  inches;  tarsus,  2.3  inches. 

Frank  Finn,  F.  Z.  S.,  in  his  book  "Fancy  Pheasants  and 
Their  Allies,"  states:  "This  jimgle  fowl  is  not  only  a  very 
beautiful  and  unique  bird  in  itself,  but  it  produces  very  beau- 
tiful hybrids  with  domestic  hens.  Some  of  these  appear  to  be 
red  with  a  violet  hackle.  In  the  Paris  Museum,  however,  they 
have  a  splendid  bronze  bird  which  is  evidently  a  cross  of  the 
Gallus  varius  probably  with  a  black  hen.  The  hybrids  seem 
to  be  partly  or  occasionally  fertile.  The  green  jungle  fowl  is 
called  the  forked-tail  jungle  fowl,  but  this  arises  from  a  mistake, 
as  the  tail  is  no  more  forked  in  life  than  the  tail  of  an  ordinary 
rooster.  The  beauty  of  the  cock's  delicately  tinted  comb  is 
remarkable,  reminding  one  of  the  petal  of  an  orchid,  and  its 
size  will  doubtless  soon  be  increased  under  domestication.  The 
beautiful  glossy  ruff  and  the  gold-laced  saddle  also  are  unique 
and  require  to  be  seen  to  be  fvdly  appreciated.  All  the  speci- 
mens I  have  ever  seen  have  been  very  tame  and  steady." 

6.  Gigantic  Cock. — The  gigantic  cock  is  supposed  to 
have  been  the  Malay  of  early  days  or  its  ancestor.  Whatever 
it  may  have  been,  it  is  extinct  so  far  as  is  known  at  present. 
Temminck,  the  naturalist,  in  speaking  of  what  he  calls  the 
"Coq  Jago  Mihi,"  in  a  book  published  in  1813,  says:  "I 
place  at  the  head  of  this  genus  the  largest  species  of  which  we 
shall  speak.  This  bird,  which  lives  in  a  wild  state,  dwells  in 
the  woods  of  the  southern  part  of  Sumatra.  It  can  be  found 
also  in  the  western  part  of  Java.  Dampier  and  Marsden  men- 
tion it.  The  latter,  who  has  devoted  a  few  words  to  it,  claims 
to  have  seen  a  cockerel  of  this  kind  stand  on  the  floor  and 
reach  with  his  beak  to  the  dinner  table.  When  the  fowl  was 
tired  it  rested  on  the  first  articulation  of  its  legs  and  was  still 


§1 


STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY 


taller  than  a  common  rooster.  One  can  form  an  idea  of  the 
great  height  of  this  fowl  by  the  illustration  of  the  foot  that  I 
have  represented  with  its  natural  dimensions." 


The  foot  referred  to  is  shown  in  Fig.  1  (6).  Its  relative  size 
can  be  seen  from  the  foot  of  an  Earl  of  Derby  Game  fowl, 
shown  in  Fig.  1  (a).     Both  are  shown  in  half  their  natural  size. 


7. 


ANCESTRY    AND    ORIGIN    OF    DOMESTIC    FOWLS 

Ancestry  of  Donaestlc  Fowls. — The  ancestry  of  the 


present-day  domestic  fowls  is  a  matter  that  may  possibly  never 
be  decided  to  the  satisfaction  of  all  investigators,  but  it  has 
proved  to  be  an  absorbing  subject  to  a  large  nimiber  of  them. 
For  a  long  time  it  has  been  generally  believed  that  all  domestic 
fowls  have  descended  from  some  one  or  other  of  the  jungle 
fowls  that  now  exist  in  a  wild  state.  The  point  on  which 
investigators  differ  is  whether  the  domestic  fowls  have  descended 


8  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 

from  only  one  variety  of  jungle  fowl,  or  whether  they  have  come 
from  several  or  all  of  the  jungle  fowls.  To  determine  whether 
or  not  any  particular  variety  of  jungle  fowl  could  be  considered 
as  one  of  the  ancestors  of  domestic  fowls  it  has  been  customary 
to  cross  fowls  of  that  variety  with  domestic  fowls  and  then 
attempt  to  breed  from  the  hybrids,  or  crosses,  thus  formed.  If 
the  hybrids  proved  fertile,  the  variety  of  jungle  fowl  used  in 
making  the  cross  was  claimed  to  be  one  of  the  original  ancestors 
of  the  domestic  fowls.  If  the  hybrid  proved  to  be  sterile,  the 
jungle  fowl  was  not  considered  as  a  possible  original  ancestor. 
The  conflicting  results  that  have  been  obtained  in  these  tests 
have  given  rise  to  decided  differences  of  opinion. 

8.  Darwin  claimed  that  the  red  jungle  fowl  was  the  only 
original  parent  stock  of  all  the  then  existing  domestic  fowls, 
and,  because  of  the  prominence  of  this  scientist,  his  statement 
was  readily  accepted.  Darwin  based  his  claim  on  what  he 
asserted  to  be  a  fact — that  only  the  crosses  produced  by  mating 
red  jimgle  cocks  with  domestic  hens  were  fertile.  He  did  not 
consider  the  other  jungle  fowls  as  parent  varieties  of  the  domes- 
tic fowls,  because  he  claimed  that  the  hybrids  resulting  from 
crossing  them  with  domestic  fowls  wotdd  not  reproduce.  This 
theory  was  accepted  by  nearly  all  naturalists,  and  until  within 
the  past  few  years  was  not  seriously  questioned. 

Since  the  time  that  Darwin  made  his  claim  in  favor  of  the  red 
jungle  fowl  as  the  only  original  ancestor  of  the  domestic  fowls, 
fertile  hybrids  have  been  obtained  by  crossing  each  of  the  four 
recognized  varieties  of  jungle  fowls  with  various  varieties  of 
domestic  fowls.  Careful  investigation  has  convinced  those 
who  have  for  years  studied  the  subject  of  the  origin  of  fowls 
that  there  is  no  adequate  evidence  that  all  fowls,  both  large  and 
small,  have  a  common  origin.  In  fact,  recent  investigators 
are  inclined  to  believe  that  more  or  less  of  the  blood  of  the  four 
wild  varieties  is  in  one  or  more  varieties  of  the  domestic  fowls 
of  the  present  time. 

9.  Some  claim  that  the  gigantic  cock  is  the  ancestor  of 
certain  varieties  of  domestic  fowls,  such  as  the  Asiatics,  Malay, 
and  Aseel,  and  this  belief  is  getting  stronger  the  more  the  sub- 


§  1  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  9 

ject  is  investigated.  This  claim  is  based  on  the  fact  that  these 
varieties  of  domestic  fowls  are  much  larger  than  any  of  the 
present-day  jungle  fowls,  and  that  they  must  have  inherited 
their  size  from  some  large  ancestor.  The  question  of  the 
existence  of  this  large  variety  is,  however,  still  a  debatable 
one,  as  no  wild  fowls  of  this  description  can  be  found. 

There  are  a  number  of  bits  of  evidence  that  tend  to  confirm 
the  early  existence  of  a  very  large  fowl  similar  to  the  one  men- 
tioned. At  the  present  time  fowls  of  mammoth  size  exist  in 
domestication  in  oriental  countries.  In  China,  the  records  of 
the  mi-aus,  which  are  institutions  that  correspond  to  monas- 
teries in  other  countries,  show  that  large  yellow-colored  fowls, 
kinkee  (gold  fowl),  have  been  raised  by  the  brotherhood  of 
these  organizations  for  more  than  1,500  years.  This,  of  course, 
woiild  indicate  the  prior  existence  of  a  large  fowl.  In  the  Malay 
and  Aseel  breeds,  the  peculiar  comb,  and  in  the  Asiatics  the 
different  color  of  the  skin,  shanks,  and  eggshell,  as  compared 
with  the  color  of  the  corresponding  parts  in  the  European 
varieties,  are  taken  as  reasons  for  assiuning  that  the  large  ori- 
ental breeds  had  an  ancestor  that  was  of  larger  size  and  of  dif- 
ferent character  than  any  of  the  present-day  jungle  fowls.  One 
author,  in  writing  of  the  Malay  of  early  days,  states  that  there 
was  little  doubt  but  that  the  Malay  was  the  kulm  fowl  of 
India  with  no  other  changes  except  such  slight  modifications 
as  usually  occur  when  wild  fowls  are  domesticated. 

10.  Beginning  of  Recognition  of  Breed  and  Variety 
Characters. — No  exact  information  as  to  the  time  when  breed 
and  variety  characters  were  first  recognized  has  been  obtained, 
but  it  is  probable  that  the  first  breed  distinctions  were  of  game 
fowls,  which  were  kept  for  fighting  purposes.  The  sport  of 
cock  fighting  is  a  very  ancient  one  and  written  records  of  such 
contests  as  old  as  1000  B.C.  have  been  found. 

Columella,  a  Roman  land  owner,  stock  raiser,  and  writer,  has 
been  credited  with  writing,  about  35  A.  D.,  the  first  description 
of  breeds  of  fowls,  and  mentioned  a  five-toed  variety,  pre- 
sumably the  ancestor  of  the  Dorking.  Bonington  Moubray, 
of  England,  in  1814,  wrote  for  publication  what  was  probably 


10  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 

the  first  description  of  Game,  Dorking,  Polish,  Malay,  and 
Spanish  fowls  as  distinct  breeds.  In  1784  he  wrote  that  he 
had  a  Duke  of  Leeds  breed. 

The  early  Romans  have  left  records  of  five-toed  fowls  of  two 
varieties — the  white  and  the  red;  and  it  is  possible  that  the 
white  and  the  red  Dorking  fowls  of  the  present  day  have 
descended  from  the  fowls  of  these  varieties  that  the  Romans 
introduced  into  Britain  at  the  time  of  their  occupation  of  that 
country. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  19th  century  some  twelve  Idnds  of 
domestic  fowls,  and  several  kinds  of  ducks,  geese,  and  turkeys 
were  recognized  as  distinct  from  one  another.  From  then 
until  the  present  time  many  changes  have  been  made  in  fowls 
and  many  new  varieties  have  been  added,  until  there  are  now 
more  that  200  varieties  that  are  of  distinct  type  and  color. 

Formerly,  in  many  localities,  most  attention  was  given  to  the 
development  of  the  egg-producing  powers  of  the  fowls,  and  in 
other  localities  the  chief  object  was  the  development  of  their 
meat-producing  qualities.  At  the  present  time  marked  atten- 
tion is  being  given  to  the  upbuilding  of  breeds  and  varieties  for 
size,  egg-producing  powers,  and  table  qualities. 


STANDARDS  OF  POULTRY 

11.  Standard-bred  poultry  is  poultry  that  has  been  bred 
to  conform  to  a  certain  standard  set  for  each  breed.  In  Amer- 
ica, standard-bred  poultry  is  the  poultry  that  is  bred  to  con- 
form to  the  standard  given  in  the  American  Standard  of  Per- 
fection, which  is  issued  by  the  American  Poultry  Association. 
In  other  countries,  standard-bred  poultry  is  the  poultry  that 
is  bred  to  conform  to  the  standard  created  by  the  governing 
poultry  association  of  the  country.  It  has  been  the  custom 
for  many  years  to  call  well-bred  fowls  thoroughbred,  but  this 
has  now  been  more  or  less  discontinued,  because  the  term 
thoroughbred  is  not  sufiiciently  definite.  For  instance,  fowls 
that  have  been  bred  in  direct  line  from  the  original  jungle  fowls 
might  properly  be  called  thoroughbred  fowls,  but  they  are 
not  standard-bred  fowls;  also,  breeds  of  fowls,  such  as  the 


§  1  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  11 

Aseel,  may  be  thoroughbred,  that  is,  they  may  be  of  pure  blood, 
but  they  are  not  standard  bred,  because  they  do  not  conform 
to  any  of  the  accepted  standards. 

12.  The  standard  defines  the  size,  shape,  and  color  of  the 
fowls  of  each  breed,  as  well  as  the  form  and  color  of  each  part. 
Although  the  present  standards  are  of  comparatively  modem 
origin,  rules  of  some  kind  for  the  separation  of  fowls  into  divi- 
sions have  been  in  existence  from  the  beginning  of  poultry  ctd- 
ture.  In  fact,  in  respect  to  color  and  form,  poiiltry  has  received 
more  attention  than  livestock.  The  influence  of  a  standard 
has  become  stronger  and  stronger  until  it  is  now  so  far  reaching 
that  it  largely  determines  the  future  of  every  variety  of  poultry. 
This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  a  standard  influences  the  popularity 
of  a  variety,  because  its  popularity  depends  on  the  usefulness 
of  the  variety,  on  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  reproduced  by 
a  large  number  of  persons,  and  on  the  attractiveness  of  its  form 
and  color.  If  a  variety  must  depend  entirely  on  its  fitness  for 
exhibition  purposes,  it  cannot  long  continue  to  be  popular. 
Even  the  inexperienced  spectator  at  a  poultry  show  wLU  notice 
that  certain  kinds  of  fowls  are  much  more  popular  than  others, 
although  he  may  not  appreciate  the  reasons  for  this.  White 
varieties  have  gained  in  popularity  chiefly  because  they  can 
be  more  easily  reproduced  of  a  good  quality  than  colored  vari- 
eties. Barred  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  have  enjoyed  the  greatest 
popularity  for  a  longer  time  than  any  other  variety,  because 
they  have  qualities  that  make  them  very  desirable  for  both 
utility  and  exhibition  purposes.  Their  closest  rival  for  popu- 
larity is  the  White  Plymouth  Rock,  which  has  more  recently 
been  developed  of  an  attractive  shape  and  color.  However, 
although  it  is  true  that  some  varieties  have  attained  popularity 
in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  are  most  difficult  to  reproduce 
of  good  quality,  and  that  extraordinary  demands  for  shape 
and  color  prompt  the  true  fancier  to  greater  efforts,  such 
demands  discourage  amateurs  and  the  less  experienced  breed- 
ers and  thus  generally  lessen  the  popiilarity  of  such  a  variety. 

13.  Original  Standards. — The  earliest  descriptions  that 
divided  fowls  into  classes  had  more  to  do  with  weight  and  size 


12  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 

at  given  ages,  egg  production,  and  market  fitness  than  with 
what  are  now  considered  exhibition  qiiaHties.  Measurements 
of  the  different  parts,  the  average  weight  of  old  and  of  young 
fowls,  the  color  of  the  skin,  and  an  indefinite  description  of 
plumage  colors  was  the  next  step  in  description.  The  first 
description  of  breeds  was  issued  in  England  about  1865,  at 
which  time  the  English  Poultry  Club  was  formed.  The 
Standard  issued  by  this  Club  was  the  first  publication  of  the 
kind,  and  designated  15  as  a  complete  scale  of  points. 

The  Standard  of  Excellence  appeared  in  America  about  the 
same  time  (publisher's  date,  1867).  This  was  a  reprint  of  the 
Standard  prepared  by  the  London  Poultry  Club,  with  altera- 
tions and  additions  adapting  it  to  America. 

14.  English.  Standard. — The  English  Standard  of  Excel- 
lence is  commonly  known  as  the  Poultry  Club  Standards; 
it  was  edited  originally  by  the  late  Alexander  Comyns,  and 
revised  under  the  supervision  of  T.  Threlford,  secretary  of  the 
club.  The  standard  descriptions  of  the  varieties  given  in  the 
publication  were  compiled  by  specialty  clubs,  and  in  each  case 
the  club  claims  title  to  its  own  description  and  copyright.  All 
are  embodied  in  one  book  and  are  controlled  by  the  main  body 
of  poultry  breeders  and  exhibitors,  in  a  manner  that  has  met 
with  approval.  Whenever  it  is  thought  advisable  to  change  the 
wording  of  a  standard  description,  a  committee  is  appointed 
to  consider  the  subject,  and  a  report  of  the  action  may  not  be 
made  for  several  years.  Diiring  the  interval  between  the  selec- 
tion of  the  committee  and  the  making  of  the  report,  the  mem- 
bers conduct  a  careful  examination  of  existing  conditions,  the 
advantages  or  disadvantages  of  the  proposed  changes  are  care- 
fully weighed,  and  the  report  that  follows  is  thus  likely  to  meet 
with  general  approval. 

15.  American  Standard. — The  complete  Standard  of 
the  American  Poultry  Association  was  issued  in  1874.  Fol- 
lowing this  came  the  Standard  of  1875,  which  was  an  improve- 
ment over  the  others.  The  descriptions  embodied  in  the 
American  Standard  were  more  concise  and  their  meaning  was 
more  readily  imderstood  than  the  briefer  descriptions  in  the 


§  1  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  13 

English  Standard.  The  first  Illustrated  Standard  was  issued 
by  the  American  Poiiltry  Association  in  1888.  This  Standard 
was  declared  obsolete  at  the  Buffalo  meeting,  in  January, 
1889. 

The  first  general  modification  of  the  American  Standard 
occurred  in  the  authorized  edition  of  January  15,  1875.  The 
one  issued  in  1874  contained  100  pages  and  was  an  improvement 
over  the  previous  editions.  The  issue  of  1875  contained  243 
pages  and  was  the  first  complete  revision  of  the  American 
Standard.  Revisions  have  occurred  from  year  to  year,  and, 
although  the  changes  have  been  slight,  they  have  been  instru- 
mental in  improving  the  quality  of  poultry  by  better  descrip- 
tions of  form  and  color.  The  fewer  the  modifications  the  more 
certain  is  the  established  type  to  be  maintained.  Extreme 
modifications  are  likely  to  cause  confusion  and  result  in  more 
or  less  dissatisfaction  among  the  breeders.  A  general  sameness 
of  appearance  in  the  makeup  of  the  Standard  existed  until  the 
edition  of  1904,  which  was  called  the  Illustrated  Standard. 
This  was  a  step  forward  in  standard  making  that  has  been 
heartily  approved.  The  revision  of  the  Standard  of  1910  was 
authorized  at  the  meeting  of  1908;  its  text  matter  was  approved 
at  the  meeting  of  1909,  and  the  final  approval  of  both  the  text 
matter  and  the  illustrations  was  given  at  the  St.  Louis  meeting 
in  August,  1910.  The  illustrations  are  from  idealized  photo- 
graphs, retouched  and  finished  to  meet  the  approval  of  members 
present  at  the  meeting. 

Following  the  issuing  of  the  Standard  of  1910,  which  was 
printed  in  book  form  and  placed  on  sale  in  January,  1911,  there 
arose  some  dissatisfaction  relative  to  the  text  and  some  of  the 
illustrations.  These  defects  were  brought  to  the  attention  of 
the  meeting  of  the  American  Poultry  Association  held  in  the 
city  of  Denver,  Colorado,  during  the  week  of  August  7  to  12, 
1911,  at  which  time  a  committee  was  authorized  to  print  a  new 
edition  of  the  1910  Standard  and  to  correct  errors  in  text  and 
replace  some  of  the  illustrations  that  were  not  considered 
suitable.  At  the  same  time  a  committee  of  seven  was  appointed 
to  prepare  for  the  next  revision  intended  for  publication 
in  1915. 


14  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §1 

16.  Show -Room  Classification. — Show-room  classifi- 
cations are  not  the  same  in  all  countries  or  even  in  all  parts  of 
the  same  country.  In  America  they  are  usually  made  to  con- 
form to  the  breeds  and  their  varieties  as  listed  in  the  American 
Standard  of  Perfection.  But  in  addition  to  such  varieties,  some 
show-room  classifications  will  include  a  few  of  the  non-standard 
varieties,  and  the  greater  niunber  of  them  will  permit  classes 
for  any  of  the  non-standard  varieties,  either  of  a  particular 
breed  or  of  many  breeds. 


STANDARD    AND    NON-STANDARD    VARIETIES    OF    POULTRY 

17.  The  list  of  breeds  and  varieties  of  poultry  in  Table  I 
includes  only  those  that  are  known  to  reproduce  their  kind  of 
a  settled  type  of  form  and  color.  In  the  colimm  headed 
Standard  Varieties  are  listed  the  varieties  of  fowls  included  in 
the  American  Standard  of  Perfection;  in  the  column  headed 
Non-Standard  Varieties  are  listed  the  varieties  not  included  in 
that  publication,  but  which  are  bred  in  the  United  States  and 
other  countries,  many  of  them  being  standard  varieties  in  other 
countries.  In  compiling  this  list,  a  slight  deviation  from  a  set 
rule  has  been  made.  The  Antwerp  Brahma  has  been  listed 
imder  the  Asiatic  fowls  as  a  non-standard  v^ariety.  To  be 
strictly  correct,  this  variety,  which  is  not  a  true  Brahma  of  the 
accepted  type,  should  be  placed  with  the  Belgian  fowls,  but  it 
has  been  placed  with  the  Asiatics  for  the  sake  of  convenience 
and  uniformity  in  the  description  of  the  breeds  given  in  later 
Sections.  In  this  table  the  name  used  for  each  variety  is  the 
name  commonly  applied  to  it  in  its  native  country. 

Descriptions  of  the  various  breeds  and  varieties  and  instruc- 
tions for  their  breeding  and  management  will  be  foimd  in  other 
Sections. 


TABLE  I 

BREEDS    AND    STANDARD    AND    NON-STANDARD    VARIETIES     OF    POULTRY 


Classes  and  Breeds 

Standard  Varieties 

Non-Standard  Varieties 

Color  of  Eggshell 

American  fowls: 

Plymouth  Rock .  . 

Barred 

Black 

Brown  or  tinted 

Buff 

Buff  Barred 

Brown  or  tinted 

Columbian 

Pea-Comb 

Brown  or  tinted 

Partridge 

Rose-Comb 

Brown  or  tinted 

Silver  Penciled 

Brown  or  tinted 

White 

Brown  or  tinted 

Wyandotte 

Black 

Buff  Columbian 

Brown  or  tinted . 

Buff 

Cuckoo 

Brown  or  tinted 

Columbian 

Pyle  Colored 

Brown  or  tinted 

Golden  Laced 

Violet 

Brown  or  tinted 

Partridge 

White-Laced  Buff  ^ 

Brown  or  tinted 

Silver  Laced 

Brown  or  tinted 

Silver  Penciled 

Brown  or  tinted 

White 

Brown  or  tinted 

Rhode  Island  Red 

Rose-Comb 

Pea-Comb 

Brown  or  tinted 

Single-Comb 

White 

Brown  or  tinted 

Dominique 

Rose-Comb 

Brown  or  tinted 

Java 

Black 

Brown  or  tinted 
Brown  or  tinted 

J    *     

Mottled 

Jersey  Blue 

Blue 

Brown  or  tinted 

Buckeye 

Pea-Comb 

Brown  or  tinted 

Asiatic  fowls. ■ 

Brahma 

Light 
Dark 

Antwerp 
Buff 

Brown  or  tinted 
Brown  or  tinted 

Cochin 

Black 

Cuckoo 

Brown  or  tinted 
Brown  or  tinted 

Buff 

Partridge 

Brown  or  tinted 

White 

Brown  or  tinted 

Langshan 

Black 

Blue 

Brown  or  tinted 

White 

Buff 

Brown  or  tinted 

Belgian  fowls: 

Antwerp  Brahma. 

Brown 

Brown 

Ardenne 

Black-Red 

White 
White 
White 

Brabant 

Black 

Mottled 

Braekel 

Black 

White 
White 

Black-Headed 

Blue 

White 

Chamois 

White 

Golden 

White 

TABLE  I— 

(Continued) 

Classes  and  Breeds 

Standard  Varieties 

Non-Standard  Varieties 

Color  of  Eggshell 

Belgian  fowls — {Con- 

tinued) : 

Braekel 

Silver 
White 

White 

White 

Bruges 

Black 

White 

Campine 

Golden 

White 

Silver 

White 

Flemish 

Silver-Gray 
Blue 

Pale  yellow 
White 

Herve 

Huttegem 

Cuckoo 

Tinted 

Ermine 

Tinted 

Golden 

Tinted 

Malines 

Black 
Cuckoo 

Brown  or  tinted 

Brown  or  tinted 

Silvered  Black 

Brown  or  tinted 

Turkey-Headed 

Brown  or  tinted 

White 

Brown  or  tinted 

Dutch  fowls: 

Breda 

Black 
Blue 

White 

White 

Cuckoo 

White 

White 

White 

Drente 

Black 

Numerous  varieties 

White      • 

Hamburg 

White 

Golden  Penciled 

White 

Golden  Spangled 

White 

Silver  Penciled 

White 

Silver  Spangled 

White 

White 

White    . 

Owl-Bearded 

Dutch 

Rose- Comb 

Numerous  varieties 

White 

Red  Cap 

White 

English  fowls: 

Dorking 

Colored 

Cuckoo 

White 

Silver-Gray 

Rose-Comb  Silver- 

Gray 

White 

White 

Red 

White 

Orpington 

Single-Comb  Black 

Blue 

Tinted 

Single-Comb  Buff 

Columbian 

Tinted 

Single-Comb  White 

Cuckoo 

Tinted 

Jubilee  Rose-Comb 

Tinted 

Jubilee  Single-Comb 

Tinted 

Rose-Comb  Black 

Tinted 

TABLE  I— 

(Continued) 

Classes  and  Breeds 

1 

Standard  Varieties 

Non-Standard  Varieties 

Color  of  EggsheU 

English  fowls —  ( Con- 

tinued) : 

Orpington 

Rose-Comb  Buff 

Tinted 

Rose-Comb  White 

Tinted 

Spangled  Rose-Comb 

Tinted 

Spangled  Single-Comb 

Tinted- 

Scotch  Dumpy.  . . 

Numerous  colors 

Tinted 

Scotch  Gray 

Barred  or  Cuckoo 

White 

Sussex 

Brown 
Light 

Tinted 

Tinted 

Red 

Tinted 

Speckled 

Tinted 

French  fowls: 

Crevecceur 

Black 

White 

Houdan 

Mottled 
Black 

White 

La  Fleche 

White 

La  Bresse 

Black 

White 

Blue 

White 

Gray 

White 

White 

White 

Parti-colored 

White 

Bourbourg 

Parti-colored    black 

and  white 

Tinted 

Faverolle 

Black 

Tinted 

Light 

Tinted 

Salmon 

Tinted 

White 

Tinted 

Game  fowls: 

Exhibition  Game 

Birchen 

Wheaten 

Tinted 

Black 

Tinted 

Black-Breasted  Red 

Tinted 

Brown-Red 

Tinted 

Golden  Duckwing 

Tinted 

Red  Pyle 

Tinted 

Silver  Duckwing 

Tinted 

White 

Tinted 

Cornish,  or  Indian, 

Dark 

Game 

White 
White-Laced  Red 

Tinted 

Tinted 

Malay 

Black-Breasted  Red 

Brown 

Sumatra 

Bbrk 

White 

Aseel 

Black-Red 

Tinted 

Brown-Red 

Tinted 

TABLE  I— 

(Continued) 

Classes  and  Breeds 

Standard  Varieties 

Non-standard  Varieties 

Color  of  Eggshell 

Game  fowls  —  (Con- 

tinued) : 

Aseel 

Duckwing 
Pyle 

Tinted 

Tinted 

White 

Tinted 

Old-English 

Black 

Tinted 

Black-Red 

Tinted 

Brown-Red 

Tinted 

Duckwing 

Tinted 

Pyle 

Tinted 

Spangled 

Tinted 

White 

Tinted 

German  fowls: 

Lakenf  elder. 

Parti-colored 

White 

Mediterranean  fowls: 

Ancona 

Mottled  Single-Comb 

Mottled  Rose-Comb 

White 

Andalusian 

Blue 

White 

Leghorn 

Single-Comb  Black 
Single-Comb  Brown 

Blue 

White 

Dominique 

White 

Rose-Comb  Brown 

Mottled 

White 

Single-Comb  Buff 

Partridge 

White 

Rose-Comb  Buff 

Pyle 

White 

Silver 

Rose-Comb  Black 

White 

Single-Comb  White 

White 

Rose-Comb  White 

White 

Minorca 

Single-Comb  Black 
Rose-Comb  Black 

Barred 
Blue 

White 

White 

Single-Comb  White 

Rose-Comb  White 

White 

Spanish 

White-Faced  Black 

White-Faced  White 

White 

Polish  fowls: 

White-Crested  Black 

White 

Buff  Laced 

White 

Bearded  Golden 

White 

Non-Bearded  Golden 

White 

Bearded  SUver 

White 

Non-Bearded  Silver 

White 

Bearded  White 

White 

Non-Bearded  White 

White 

Miscellaneous  fowls: 

Frizzle. 

Bay 

.Tinted 

Black 

Tinted 

Red 

Tinted 

White 

Tinted 

Naked  Neck 

Numerous  colors 

Tinted 

TABLE  I — {Continued) 


Classes  and  Breeds 

Standard  Varieties 

Non-Standard  Varieties 

Color  of  Eggshell 

Miscellaneous  fowls — 

{Continued) : 

Rumpless 

Numerous  colors 

Tinted 

Silky 

White 

Numerous  varieties 

Tinted 

Sultan 

Tinted 

Yokohama,  Tosa, 

or  Phoenix 

Numerous  varieties 

Tinted 

Bantam  fowls: 

Booted 

White 

Black  and  other  varie- 

ties 

Tinted 

Brahma 

Dark 
Light 

Tinted 

Tinted 

Cochin 

Black 

Cuckoo 

Tinted 

Buff 

Tinted 

Partridge 

Tinted 

White 

Tinted 

Exhibition  Game 

Bantam 

Birchen 

Old-English 

White  or  slightly 
tinted 

Black 

Wheaten 

White  or  slightly 
tinted 

Black-Breasted  Red 

White  or  slightly 
tinted 

Brown-Red 

White  or  slightly 
tinted 

Golden  Duckwing 

White  or  slightly 
tinted 

Red  Pyle 

White  or  slightly 
tinted 

Silver  Duckwing 

White  or  slightly 
tinted 

White 

White  or  slightly 
tinted 

Japanese 

Black 

Buff 

White  or  slightly 

tirfted 

Black-Tailed 

Duckwing 

White  or  slightly 
tinted 

White 

Splashed 

White  or  slightly 
tinted 

Polish 

Bearded  White 

White-Crested  Black 

White  or  slightly 

tinted 

Buff  Laced 

Golden 

White  or  slightly 
tinted 

Non-Bearded 

Silver 

White  or  slightly 
tinted 

TABLE  I— 

(Cont-inUed) 

Classes  and  Breeds 

Standard  Varieties 

Non-Standard  Varieties 

Color  of  Eggshell 

Bantam  fowls —  {Co7i- 
tinued) : 
Rose-Comb 

Sebright           .    .  . 

Black 
White 
Golden 
Silver 

Black-Red 
White 

White 

Gray 

White 

Black 

White 

Black 

Fawn-White 

Colored 
White 

Blue 

Black-Red 

Numerous  varieties 

Numerous  varieties 

Black 

Numerous  varieties 

Nvmierous  varieties 

Black 

Buff 

Numerous'  colors 

Cuckoo 

Black 
White 
Numerous  varieties 

Broken  colors,  Blue- 
white 

White 

BuflE  (female  is  pen- 
ciled) 

White  or  slightly 

tinted 
White  or  slightly 

tinted 
White  or  slightly 

Miscellaneous  ban- 
tams: 
Andalusian 

Aseel     

tinted 

White  or  slightly 

tinted 

White  or  slightly 
tinted 
Tinted 

Frizzle  

Tinted 

Tinted 

Langshan  

Tinted 
Tinted 

Malay 

Tinted 

Tinted 

Tinted 

Rumpless 

Scotch  Gray  . . . 
Silky 

Tinted 
Tinted 
Tinted 

Spanish                 .  . 

Tinted 

Sultan 

Tinted 

Yokohama 

Ducks: 

Aylesbury 

Call       

Tinted 

White  or  tinted 

with  green 

Tinted 

Tinted 
Green 

Crested 

Tinted 

East  India 

Huttegem 

Indian  Runner .  .  . 
Khaki 

Green 

Tinted 
White 

Tinted 
White 

White 

TABLE  I— 

(Continued) 

Classes  and  Breeds 

Standard  Varieties 

Non-standard  Varieties 

Color  of  Eggshell 

Ducks — {Continued) : 

Orpington 

Buflf 

Tinted 

Partridge 

Partridge  colored 

Tinted 

Pekin 

White 

Colored 

Blue 

White 

Rouen 

Greenish  tint 

Swedish 

Blue  tinted 

Geese: 

.   African 

Gray 

White 

Buff 

Brown 
White 

Buff  colored 

White 

Chinese 

White 

White 

Egyptian 

Colored 

Tinted 

Embden 

White 
Gray 

White 

Toulouse 

White 

Wnd,  or  Canadian 

Gray,    marked    with 

black 

Tinted 

Guinea  fowls: 

Gray 

Speckled 

Pearl 

Speckled 

Vulturine 

Speckled 

White 

Speckled 

Peafowls: 

Black-Winged 

Speckled 

Common 

Speckled 

Javan 

Speckled 

White 

Speckled 

Turkeys: 

Black 

Cambridge  Bronze 

Speckled 

Bourbon  Red 

Ronquieres 

Speckled 

Bronze 

Fawn 

Speckled 

Buif 

Gray 

Speckled 

Narragansett 

Speckled 

Slate 

Speckled 

White 

Speckled 

Note. — Bantam  fowls  of  the  same  breed  are  apt  to  lay  either  white  or  tinted  eggs,  Ducks  of  the 
same  breed  may  lay  either  white  or  tinted  eggs;  some  have  a  greenish  and  others  a  bluish  tint.  The 
eggs  of  the  geese  may  be  white,  grayish  white,  or  cream  colored. 


22  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 


SELECTION  OF  BREEDING  STOCK 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION 

18.  The  selection  of  the  breeding  stock  for  the  foundation 
of  a  strain  of  fowls  is  of  fimdamental  inportance,  for  on  the 
quality  of  the  breeding  stock  depends,  in  a  large  measure,  the 
ultimate  success  of  the  strain.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that 
no  matter  how  much  a  breeder  may  know  of  breeding  methods 
he  can  scarcely  hope  to  build  up  a  strain  of  high  quality  from 
inferior  breeding  stock,  and  that  he  may,  by  improper  methods 
of  breeding,  lose  many  of  the  good  qualities  of  his  breeding 
stock.  The  best  results  can  be  obtained  only  by  practicing  the 
best  methods  of  breeding  on  the  finest  breeding  stock.  Hence, 
the  first  step  is  to  select  the  best  available  breeding  stock. 

19.  Value  of  Breed  Characters. — Fowls  are  classified 
into  breeds  according  to  their  shape,  and  no  fowl,  no  matter 
how  good  its  plumage  colors  may  be,  is  of  any  value  for  breed- 
ing purposes  imless  it  has  the  distinctive  form  peculiar  to  the 
breed  to  which  it  belongs.  This  shape  should  be  so  well  defined 
that  by  means  of  it  any  breed  of  fowls  can  be  readily  distin- 
guished from  all  other  kinds  of  fowls.  Deviation  from  the  well- 
defined  breed  characters  of  any  breeds  on  the  part  of  any  con- 
siderable number  of  fanciers  would  soon  deprive  them  of  their 
prominent  position  in  the  poultry  world. 

Because  of  the  serious  consequences  that  might  follow,  very 
careful  consideration  should  be  given  to  all  proposed  changes  in 
the  standard  descriptions  of  breeds,  and  no  changes  should  be 
made  unless  the  evidence  is  overwhelmingly  conclusive  that 
such  changes  would  be  beneficial  to  the  breed.  In  the  past- 
there  have  been  changes  in  standards  that  have  so  altered 
breeds  as  to  'deprive  the  fowls  of  their  commercial  qualities 
and  place  them  in  the  restricted  field  of  ornamental  poultry. 


§  1  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  23 

20.  "Value  of  Color,  or  Variety,  Characters. — More 
attention  is  commonly  given  to  variety  characters  than  to 
breed  characters.  This,  perhaps,  is  because  variety  dis- 
tinctions are  based  entirely  on  the  color  of  the  plumage,  and 
hence  are  more  conspicuous  than  breed  distinctions.  In  select- 
ing fowls  of  any  variety  for  breeding  stock,  great  care  should 
be  taken  to  see  that  the  color  not  only  of  the  plimiage  but  of 
the  head  points,  the  shanks,  the  feet,  and  even  the  soles  of  the 
feet,  and  also  the  markings  on  the  plumage  and  the  shading  on 
the  under  plumage  is  according  to  the  Standard. 

The  colors  of  the  fowls  of  any  variety  must  be  so  well  defined 
and  have  such  perfect  shades  as  to  have  the  most  attractive 
appearance ;  and  they  must  also  be  as  free  as  possible  from  colors, 
markings,  and  shadings  that  are  foreign  to  the  variety.  For- 
merly it  was  more  difficult  than  at  the  present  time  to  obtain 
certain  combinations  of  colors  in  fowls.  For  instance,  it  was 
difficult  to  obtain  white  varieties  with  pure  white  pliunage  and 
either  golden  yellow  or  pinkish-white  shanks,  according  to  the 
requirements  of  the  Standard.  It  frequently  happens  that 
white-plumaged  fowls  have  yellow  in  the  plimiage  and  a  light 
shade  of  yellow  in  their  shanks.  The  plumage  of  white  fowls 
should  be  white  down  to  the  skin,  and  the  shanks  and  beak 
should  be  of  a  rich  shade  of  yeUow.  When  pinkish-white 
shanks  are  a  required  character  of  a  variety,  they  should  be  as 
perfect  in  color  as  the  plumage. 

In  selecting  breeding  fowls,  the  quality  of  the  plumage  colors 
is  also  an  important  matter  to  consider.  To  be  of  real  value, 
fowls  must  be  able  to  continue  to  reproduce  year  after  year  a 
large  percentage  of  young  true  to  variety  color,  or  of  even  a 
better  color  than  themselves.  The  color  must  be  good  enough 
to  stand  up  well  against  all  exposure  to  sun,  rain,  and  other 
climatic  conditions;  and  it  must  be  attractive  enough  to  win 
and  retain  public  favor. 

All  exhibition  fowls  should  have  plumage  of  a  rich  color  and 
a  glossy  finish,  and  this  richness  of  plumage  should  be  encour- 
aged as  long  as  it  does  not  lead  to  unnatural  conditions.  Rich, 
glossy,  and  profuse  feathers  are  found  only  in  fowls  that  have 
great  vitality  and  the  best  of  health. 


24  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 

21.  Value  of  New  Breeds  and  Varieties. — The  increase 
in  the  number  of  new  breeds  and  varieties  should  be  encouraged 
because  it  prompts  fanciers  to  work  hard  in  their  search  for 
newer  things,  increases  the  interest  in  poultry  exhibitions,  cre- 
ates new  ideals,  new  ambitions,  and  new  fanciers,  and  adver- 
tises poultry  raising  by  being  noticed  in  the  public  press. 
There  is  also  always  a  great  effort  on  the  part  of  originators 
to  herald  their  new  varieties  into  notice  and  make  them  popu- 
lar. All  this  causes  new  varieties  to  be  widely  distributed  in 
a  comparatively  short  time,  and  thus  leads  to  a  more  thorough 
testing  of  their  qualities  before  they  are  distributed  for  commer- 
cial purposes.  No  harm  is  done  to  poultry  farming  even  if  a 
dozen  or  more  widely  advertised  new  varieties  fail  to  come  up 
to  expectations,  provided  they  are  properly  tested.  The  only 
harm  that  may  come  from  the  introduction  of  new  varieties 
is  when  such  varieties  are  injudiciously  crossed  into  profitable 
flocks  before  the  new  varieties  have  been  thoroughly  tested  for 
each  and  every  character  it  is  claimed  they  possess. 

22.  Value  of  Size. — The  proper  size  for  fowls  of  any  breed 
is  determined,  to  a  certain  extent,  by  the  use  to  which  they  are 
to  be  put.  As  a  general  rule,  it  may  be  said  that  the  best  possi- 
ble size  for  a  fowl  is  that  stated  in  the  Standard  description  of 
the  breed  to  which  it  belongs.  In  fowls  intended  for  market 
poultry,  weight,  of  course,  is  of  considerable  advantage,  and 
when  intended  for  this  purpose  a  Brahma,  for  instance,  may 
be  fed  up  to  a  weight  more  than  half  as  much  again  as  that 
demanded  by  the  Standard.  In  fowls  intended  for  egg  produc- 
tion, a  size  that  will  be  medium  within  Standard  requirements 
will  be  most  appropriate.  It  is  never  wise  to  attempt  to  increase 
the  size  of  a  fowl  of  any  variety  beyond  a  point  where  excess- 
ive size  will  detract  from  an  attractive  form.  A  Coltimbian 
Wyandotte,  for  instance,  equal  in  size  to  a  Light  Brahma  would 
be  out  of  proportion  for  its  breed  and  would  be  a  monstrosity, 
but  a  Light  Brahma  might  be  increased  in  size  considerably 
over  the  Standard  requirements  without  being  open  to  the  same 
criticism.  The  naturally  large  proportions  of  the  Brahma  can 
be  increased  without  injury  to  symmetry. 


§  1  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  25 

The  proper  size  of  a  fowl  of  any  breed  should  be  determined 
by  the  height,  length,  and  breadth  for  the  breed  as  given  in 
the  Standard,  rather  than  by  the  amount  of  flesh  the  fowl  may 
carry  as  the  result  of  heavy  feeding.  It  is  sometimes  possible 
for  a  small  fowl  to  carry  so  much  flesh  as  to  weigh  more  than 
another  fowl  in  thin  flesh  that  may  have  a  large  enough  frame 
to  appear  twice  the  size  of  the  smaller  one.  Among  fanciers 
it  has  been  the  practice  for  so  long  to  estimate  the  size  of 
standard-bred  fowls  by  their  weight  alone,  that  the  idea  that 
size  is  synonymous  with  weight  has  become  well  established; 
this  is  true  not  only  in  America  but  also  in  other  coiintries. 
The  result  of  this  practice  has  been  to  neglect  somewhat  the 
dimensions  of  potdtry  in  considering  their  size — one  of  their 
most  valuable  characters. 

Fowls  for  breeding  purposes  should  always  be  selected  from 
those  that  come  up  to  the  weights  published  in  the  Standard. 
In  that  publication  the  weights  for  both  mature  and  immature 
fowls  are  given.  At  one  time  a  premium  in  points  was  given 
to  a  fowl  that  was  of  more  than  standard  weight,  and  a  corre- 
sponding number  of  points  was  deducted  from  the  score  of  a 
fowl  that  was  below  standard  weight.  At  another  time  prefer- 
ence was  given  to  those  nearest  the  standard  weight.  It  is 
thought  that  better  form  was  generally  produced  under  this 
latter  rule  than  the  other.  In  aU  breeds,  however,  the  rule 
shotdd  be  to  allow  any  size  up  to  the  point  beyond  which  the 
proper  proportions  of  the  fowls  would  be  changed.  A  fowl  of 
any  variety  in  which  size  is  of  particular  value  cannot  be  too 
large  so  long  as  it  maintains  its  breed  characters  to  perfection. 

23.  Value  of  Symmetry. — ^A  fowl  is  symmetrical,  or  has 
a  perfect  form,  when  each  part  is  perfect  in  itself  and  is  in  the 
proper  proportion  to  eivery  other  part.  To  describe  how  any 
particular  fowl  should  look  to  be  considered  S3anmetrical  would 
require  almost  the  entire  description  of  the  shape  of  the  fowl  as 
contained  in  the  Standard.  To  produce  successful  exhibition 
poultry,  symmetry  must  be  perfect  in  every  fowl  used  for 
breeding.  The  selection  of  fowls  of  perfect  symmetry  may  not 
always  bring  success,  but  without  it  success  is  seldom,  if  ever, 


26  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 

acqmred.  Fowls  that  lack  symmetry,  even  though  they  are 
covered  with  the  most  beautiful  plimiage  demanded  for  the 
variety,  may  appear  deformed.  A  back  of  bad  proportions 
will  destroy  perfect  s],Tnmetry;  shanks  too  short  for  the  breed, 
by  giving  a  fowl  a  dimipy  appearance,  will  mar  a  form  that 
might  otherwise  have  been  attractive;  and  a  comb  of  too  great 
size  and  incorrect  form  may  detract  so  much  from  the  beauty 
of  the  head  points  as  to  disturb  the  balance  of  an  otherwise 
well-formed  fowl.  

SELECTION  OF  BREED  FOR  FOUNDATION  STOCK 

24.  Division  of  Breeds  According  to  Use. — According 
to  the  uses  to  which  they  are  put,  fowls  may  be  separated  into 
five    classes:     (1)  Heavy^-weight,    or    meat-producing,    fowls; 

(2)  medium- weight,  or  general-piurpose  fowls,  which  are  those 
that  are  used  for  both  egg  production  and  meat  production; 

(3)  egg-producing  fowls ;  (4)  ornamental  fowls,  that  is,  those 
kept  for  their  beauty;  (5)  bantams. 

The  heavy-weight,  or  meat-producing,  fowls  are  the  Asiatics, 
which  include  the  Brahmas,  the  Cochins,  and  the  Langshans; 
the  general-purpose  fowls  are  the  American  and  English  breeds; 
the  egg-producing  fowls  are  the  Mediterranean  breeds ;  the  dis- 
tinctly ornamental  fowls  are  those  that  are  kept  for  show  pur- 
poses only.  Bantams  of  all  kinds,  although  largely  ornamental, 
are  a  class  by  themselves.  They  are  highly  esteemed  for  exhi- 
bition purposes  but  are  not  equally  well  thought  of  for  utility 
purposes. 

25.  Breeds  Best  Adapted  to  Certain  Climates. — Cer- 
tain breeds  of  fowls  are  better  adapted  to  certain  climates  than 
others,  and  in  selecting  a  breed  of  fowls  the  poultryman  should 
bear  this  carefully  in  mind. 

The  Dorkings,  which  are  held  in  high  esteem  in  England, 
thrive  better  in  some  localities  than  in  others.  Dry  or  well- 
drained  soil  is  best  suited  for  the  fowls  of  this  breed. 

Brahmas  and  Cochins  seem  to  do  best  in  a  moist  climate, 
such  as  is  found  near  the  ocean;  inland  conditions  are  less 
favorable  to  them.     Hence  it  follows  that  the  soil  and  climate 


§  1  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  27 

of  New  England  seem  better  suited  to  the  Brahmas  and  Cochins 
than  those  of  the  Middle  West.  In  America,  the  Brahma  does 
best  on  dry,  well-drained  soil. 

In  all  localities  in  England  and  America,  the  general-piirpose 
fowls,  such  as  the  Plymouth  Rock,  Rhode  Island  Red,  and 
Orpington,  seem  to  do  better  than  those  of  the  heavier  breeds. 

The  Mediterranean  varieties  are  well  adapted  to  all  kinds  of 
soil  and  climatic  conditions.  They  are  well  suited  to  Italy  and 
Spain,  the  countries  of  their  origin;  they  are  as  good  egg  pro- 
ducers in  the  colder  climate  of  New  York  and  Connecticut  as 
in  the  milder  climate  of  New  Jersey  and  in  the  warm  climate 
of  California. 

The  Hamburg  and  the  Campine  fowls  are  remarkably  good 
egg  producers.  Formerly,  the  Hamburg  fowls  were  the  most 
highly  considered  of  all  for  egg  production,  but  they  have  of 
late  years  been  bred  principally  for  exhibition.  At  the  present 
time  the  Campines  and  the  Braekels  are  largely  kept  in  Bel- 
gium for  egg  production,  and  the  Leghorns  are  kept  in  America 
for  the  same  piurpose.  The  Malines  are  considered  best  in 
Belgiiun  for  market  poiiltry. 

Years  ago  the  La  Fleche,  the  Crevecoeur,  and  the  Houdan 
fowls  were  preeminently  the  market  poultry  of  France.  In 
recent  years  several  varieties  of  the  La  Bresse  fowls  have 
become  popular  in  France.  They  and  the  FaveroUes  are  both 
highly  considered  at  the  present  time.  The  La  Bresse  fowls 
are  valued  for  both  egg  production  and  market  poultry.  They 
lay  eggs  with  white  shells,  and  are  highly  valued  by  those  who 
prefer  white  eggs.  The  Faverolles  are  likewise  highly  valued 
by  those  who  prefer  brownish  eggs,  as  these  fowls  lay  eggs 
having  tinted  shells. 

The  Cornish,  or  Indian,  Game  fowls  have  gained  in  popu- 
larity as  market  poultry.  They  are  used  in  some  localities  for 
crossing  with  Dorkings  and  Orpingtons  and  with  all  the  Ameri- 
can breeds  and  varieties.  The  offspring  from  these  crosses  are 
used  only  for  table  poultry  and  such  offspring  have  but  little 
value  either  as  egg  producers  or  for  breeding  purposes.  The 
Old-English  Game  fowls  have  returned  to  favor  in  England. 
Some  strains  of  this  fowl  are  excellent  eggs  producers  and  have 


28  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 

a  large  percentage  of  breast  meat  on  their  carcasses.  Were  it 
not  for  their  pugnacious  inclinations,  they  might  be  more  com- 
monly selected  by  those  who  keep  a  few  fowls  for  home  con- 
stmiption. 

No  fowls  having  yellow  flesh  and  skin  dress  more  beautifiilly 
for  market  than  do  all  the  buff  and  partridge  varieties.  If 
more  attention  were  given  to  the  cultivation  of  breast  meat  on 
aU  of  these  fowls,  and  less  drastic  requirements  were  demanded 
of  the  partridge  varieties  for  exhibition,  aU  of  them  would 
become  popular  as  market  poultry. 

Bantams  may  be  kept  in  a  very  small  space.  Ten  or  a 
dozen  Brahma  or  Cochin  bantam  females  without  a  male  may 
be  safely  kept  in  the  most  densely  populated  part  of  a  city  with 
full  assurance  that  they  will  not  disturb  the  neighbors.  They 
will  lay  quite  as  weU  without  as  with  a  male.  Two  bantam 
eggs  are  fiilly  equal  to  one  egg  of  larger  size.  Bantams  will 
lay  many  eggs  diuing  the  winter  months,  provided  they  have 
comfortable  quarters  to  stay  in.  Other  kinds  of  bantams  will 
do  quite  as  well  but  are  not  so  easily  controlled,  as  they  are 
light  of  wing  and  may  fly  about  and  annoy  the  neighbors. 
Brahma  and  Cochin  bantams,  dressed  for  table,  weigh  about 
1^  pounds. 

Where  range  is  restricted,  a  trio  of  White  Holland  or  of  Black 
turkeys  can  be  kept  within  an  orchard  of  4  or  5  acres. 
Methods  of  restraining  them  are  described  elsewhere.  Where 
there  is  more  range,  a  larger  number  can,  of  course,  be  kept. 
Turkeys  will  not  do  well  if  compelled  to  occupy  the  same 
groimd  with  other  kind  of  fowls  or  with  any  farm  animals,  such 
as  cows  and  pigs.  Where  unrestricted  range  can  be  had,  any 
variety  of  turkeys  will  do  weU. 

Ducks  for  home  consumption,  for  egg  production,  and  for 
market  poultry  can  be  cultivated  at  a  profit.  Indian  Runner 
ducks  will  lay  quite  as  many  eggs  as  will  the  average  hen. 
They  dress  beautifully  at  4  pounds  for  table  purposes  and 
are  remarkably  good  foragers.  Pekin  ducks  grow  quickly 
to  broiler  size,  dressing  at  from  4  to  6  pounds  when  10  to 
12  weeks  of  age.  The  Rouen  is,  perhaps,  the  best  for  winter 
roasters. 


§  1  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  29 

Geese  may  be  kept  in  any  locality  where  there  is  sufficient 
water  for  them  to  swim  and  a  sufficient  growth  of  herbage  to 
sustain  them.  For  a  small,  compact  goose,  either  of  the  two 
varieties  of  China  geese  will  answer  well.  The  Embden  and 
the  Toiilouse  are  the  best  for  the  heavy-weight  roasters.  A 
trio  of  either  of  these  should  hatch  and  rear  each  year  sufficient 
geese  for  the  average  family,  and  they  can  be  kept  on  the  farm 
without  injury  to  any  of  the  growing  crops  provided  they  are 
fenced  in  a  pasture  lot  or  waste  piece  of  land  where  there  is  a 
good  water  supply. 

26.  Importance  of  tlie  Selection  of  Good  Individ- 
uals.— In  selecting  fowls  for  breeding  purposes,  it  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  the  selection  of  the  individuals  of  a  breed  is 
just  as  important,  if  not  more  important,  than  the  selection  of 
the  breed  itself.  The  best  exhibition  poiiltry,  the  best  market 
poiiltry,  or  the  most  prolific  egg  layers  cannot  be  produced  by 
any  but  the  best  fowls  of  the  breed. 

The  great  importance  of  the  selection  of  good  fowls  has  been 
brought  out  by  egg-laying  contests  in  various  parts  of  the 
world.  In  France,  where  the  poultrymen  have  given  closer 
attention  to  the  development  of  the  utility  qualities  in  their 
fowls  than  the  poultrymen  of  other  countries,  an  expert  has, 
as  the  result  of  a  large  number  of  experiments,  found  the  fowls 
of  the  following  breeds,  in  the  order  given,  to  be  the  best  egg 
layers:  Hamburg,  Leghorn,  and  La  Bresse.  The  Dorkings 
and  other  larger  fowls  are  given  lower  positions.  An  English 
expert  claims  that  the  general-purpose  breeds  are  fully  the 
equal  of  all,  except  the  Hamburg  and  the  Leghorn,  in  egg  lay- 
ing. In  Australia,  the  egg-laying  contests  have  shown  that  the 
Leghorns,  Wyandottes,  Langshans,  and  Orpingtons  all  average 
a  higher  egg  production  than  the  best  of  those  specified  by  the 
French.  This  great  variation  in  results  in  different  parts  of 
the  world,  even  with  fowls  of  the  same  breed,  is  a  good  indica- 
tion that  the  production  of  the  greatest  mmiber  of  eggs  does 
not  depend  so  much  on  the  breed  of  the  fowls  as  on  their  indi- 
vidual merits.  This  is  also  true  in  respect  to  table  and  exhi- 
bition qualities. 


30  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 

27.  Variations  in  Local  Preferences. — The  preference 
for  breeds  of  fowls  varies  considerably  in  different  countries 
and  in  different  localities  in  the  same  country ;  frequently  these 
preferences  are  based  on  non-essential  details,  but  are  none  the 
less  important  for  the  poultryman  to  observe.  Brahma  fowls, 
for  instance,  are  not  highly  esteemed  in  England,  Edwin  Brown, 
the  noted  English  poultry  authority,  even  going  so  far  as  to 
say  that  no  fowl  that  has  feathered  legs  is  a  first-class  table 
fowl.  In  contrast  with  this,  it  may  be  said  that  the  Coucou 
de  Malines  of  Belgium  and  the  Brahmas  of  America,  both  of 
which  are  feather-legged  breeds,  are  highly  esteemed  in  the 
respective  countries. 

There  are  also  preferences  based  on  the  color  of  the  skin  and 
of  the  shanks  of  fowls.  In  Europe,  fowls  having  white  skin 
and  white  or  cream-colored  flesh  are  preferred.  In  America, 
those  with  yellow  skin  and  yellow  flesh  are  preferred.  In 
France,  one  of  the  most  highly  favored  table  fowls  is  the  La 
Bresse,  a  fowl  quite  like  the  Leghorn  in  form  and  color.  The 
flesh  of  the  La  Bresse  is  white  and  the  shanks  and  feet  are 
bluish  gray.  The  French  are  partial  to  the  Faverolles,  which 
are  feather-legged  fowls,  and  also  to  the  Houdans,  which  have 
no  feathers  on  their  shanks  and  feet,  but  have  considerable 
crest  and  beard. 

A  wide  diversity  of  opinion  exists  throughout  the  world  as  to 
which  breed  is  best  for  egg  production,  for  market  poultry,  and 
for  the  show  room.  It  is  thus  necessary  for  the  poultryman  to 
select  the  kinds  that  are  most  popular  in  his  locality  and  which 
will  attract  the  most  attention  there.  This  rule  is  just  as  neces- 
sary for  the  fancier  who  is  to  exhibit  his  fowls  as  it  is  for  the 
commercial  poultry  raiser  who  must  cater  to  the  whims  of  the 
market  where  he  disposes  of  his  goods. 

Local  preferences  go  so  far  as  even  to  favor  one  form  for  a 
breed  in  one  locality  and  another  form  in  another.  In  England, 
for  instance,  the  fanciers  prefer  a  type  of  Brahma,  Cochin, 
Leghorn,  and  Plymouth  Rock  imlike  the  types  of  these  breeds 
as  accepted  in  America.  The  preferences  in  America  and 
England  differ  greatly  as  to  color  and  markings  of  the  par- 
tridge varieties.     The  Houdan  of  England  and  the  Houdan  of 


§  1  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  31 

America  are  very  dissimilar,  and  the  one  that  is  preferred  in 
one  country  would  not  be  acceptable  in  the  other. 

Such  preferences  are  quite  natural,  and  they  are  met  with 
continually  a  few  hundred  miles  apart  in  the  same  country. 
The  winning  Brahmas  at  Boston  differ  very  materially  from 
those  that  win  in  the  Middle  West,  and  in  about  the  same  pro- 
portion that  the  EngUsh  Brahmas  differ  from  the  Boston  type. 
The  claim  that  one  type  for  a  breed  rules  in  America  is  some- 
times strongly  made,  yet  those  who  travel  extensively  through 
the  country  know  that  marked  variations  exist  in  different 
localities.  The  injury  or  benefit  of  such  a  condition  of  affairs 
is,  of  course,  purely  conjectural,  but  one  thing  that  is  certain 
is  that  if  the  wrong  type  is  selected  or  preferred  in  any  locality, 
those  who  follow  that  selection  as  their  ideal  for  breeding  are 
sure  to  fail  in  the  production  of  true  form  and  must  suffer 
defeat  when  they  exhibit  their  fowls  in  a  competition  where  the 
fowls  will  be  judged  properly. 

28.  Value  of  Combination  of  Exhibition  and  Utility 
Qualities. — ^A  combination  of  qualities  is  most  desirable  in 
every  fovv^l.  The  ideal  fowl  is  the  one  that  is  capable  of  a  good 
egg  production,  is  good  for  market  poultry,  and  has  the  dis- 
tinctive shape  and  color  characteristics  to  make  it  Valuable  for 
exhibition.  All  of  these  qualities  are  necessary  for  the  highest 
success  with  any  variety. 

It  has  been  said  that  exhibition  poultry  is  not  the  most  desir- 
able for  utility  purposes,  because  such  fowls  do  not  lay  well 
and  do  not  produce  good  market  poiiltry.  Yet  it  is  a  fact  that 
the  best  egg-producing  fowls  and  market-poiiltry-producing 
fowls  have  come  from  some  of  the  most  attractive  standard- 
bred  poultry.  .  Standard  requirements  for  all  breeds  call  for  a 
formation  that  is  always  considered  the  best  for  producing 
either  the  best  market  poultry  or  the  largest  number  of  eggs, 
as  the  case  may  be.  The  reason  why  standard-bred  poultry 
is  thought  to  be  unsatisfactory  for  egg  production  is  because 
the  fowls  that  are  kept  for  the  show  room  are  seldom,  if  ever, 
handled  in  such  a  way  as  to  induce  them  to  lay  a  great  number 
of  eggs.     Prize- winning  fowls  of  the  egg-producing  varieties 


32  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §1 

will  usually  produce  a  high  average  of  eggs  if  handled  properly, 
and  prize-winning  fowls  of  the  Asiatic  and  general-purpose 
breeds  will  usually  produce  table  poultry  of  the  highest  quality. 
Far  from  exhibition  poultry  being  useless,  those  who  have 
given  the  matter  careful  consideration  must  admit  that  the 
remarkable  increase  in  both  the  quantity  and  the  quality  of 
poultry  products  in  the  past  few  decades  has  come  from  the 
efforts  of  fanciers  who  have  striven  to  produce  new  and  better 
varieties  and  who  have  first  kept  them  for  exhibition.  These 
new  and  improved  varieties  have  been  distributed  by  fanciers 
to  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  the  result  has  been  an  improve- 
ment in  quality.  This  statement  is  borne  out  by  the  fact  that 
more  advancement  has  been  made  in  poultry  during  the  last 
50  years,  during  which  the  development  of  exhibition  poul- 
try has  been  most  rapid,  than  was  made  in  the  hundred  years 
previous.  

VARIATIONS  IN  EXTTTBITIQN  POULTRY 

29.  Variations  From  Original  Type. — The  accepted 
types  of  many  varieties  of  the  various  breeds  of  fowls  at  the 
present  time  differ  greatly  from  the  original  type  of  the  breed. 
This  is  because  the  newer  varieties  have  not  aU  been  molded  on 
the  same  lines  as  those  on  which  the  original  variety  of  the 
breed  was  formed.  The  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  and  the  Laced 
Wyandotte  fowls  were  the  first  varieties  in  their  respective 
families,  and  although  it  is  generally  admitted  to  be  desirable 
to  have  all  varieties  of  these  breeds  conform  to  breed  type, 
differences  do  exist  in  the  several  varieties.  The  Black  Orping- 
ton was  the  original  of  the  Orpington  breed,  and  the  general 
contoiu-  of  aU  the  varieties  should  be  the  same  as  this.  This, 
however,  is  known  not  to  be  the  case,  although  the  general 
characters  of  the  Orpingtons  individualize  the  breed.  The 
form  of  the  Orpington  is  a  distinct  type,  and  should  be  changed 
as  httle  as  possible;  any  changes  shoiild  be  in  the  line  of  making 
the  type  more  distinct.  A  tendency  toward  having  them  more 
like  the  Plymouth  Rock  would  be  a  great  mistake. 

Sometimes  it  happens  that  the  original  variety  is  not  the 
best  type  of  the  breed.     In  the  Hamburgs,  for  instance,  the 


§  1  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  33  ' 

silver  penciled  variety  was  the  original.  The  other  varieties 
are  considered  under  the  one  description  of  shape  in  the  Stand- 
ard, but  there  are  marked  differences  in  the  shape  of  the  pen- 
ciled and  the  spangled  varieties.  The  shape  of  the  Black 
Hamburg  is,  in  fact,  the  best  model  for  all  the  varieties,  but 
it  is  much  better  for  the  Spangled  Hamburg  fowls  to  remain 
as  they  are ;  an  attempt  to  modify  them  would  detract  from 
their  beauty. 

Similar  conditions  exist  to  a  greater  or  less  degree  in  aU 
breeds  that  have  several  varieties.  Although  all  turkeys  con- 
form to  a  certain  extent  to  one  description,  certain  differences 
exist.  Bantam  fowls  of  some  breeds  of  which  there  are  several 
varieties  will  have  slight  differences  among  them.  Although 
it  inay  be  possible  for  such  differences  to  exist  without  confu- 
sion, it  should  be  the  purpose  of  the  fancier  to  make  those  which 
belong  to  a  certain  breed  conform  to  the  breed  characters. 

30.  Loss  of  Prestige  of  Asiatic  Fowls. — The  Asiatic 
fowls,  particularly  the  Brahmas  and  the  Cochins,  have  lost 
much  of  their  poptdarity  as  utility  poultry,  although  between 
1878  and  1885  they  were  considered  to  be  the  best  general- 
purpose  fowls  in  existence.  This  change  has  taken  place 
because  these  breeds  have  been  transformed  by  the  fancier 
from  the  foremost  of  all  utility  fowls  to  the  first  among  fowls 
that  are  bred  solely  for  their  form  and  feathers.  During  the 
transformation  the  utility  qualities  were,  to  a  large  extent,  lost. 

When  the  first  Cochins  came  to  England  and  the  first  Brahmas 
to  America,  the  poultry  world  was  startled  at  the  large  number 
of  eggs  produced  by  fowls  of  these  breeds,  by  the  quality  and 
flavor  of  their  flesh,  and  by  their  large  size.  The  Brahma  soon 
became  the  pride  of  the  poultry  breeders  of  America,  and  the 
Cochin  occupied  an  equally  prominent  position  in  England. 
Fowls  of  these  breeds  were  first  bred  and  fed  both  for  an 
increased  egg  production  and  for  better  table  quality,  and  as 
long  as  this  lasted  they  maintained  their  prominent  position 
in  the  poultry  world.  About  1885,  however,  the  craze  in 
England  for  profuse  feathering  caused  the  breeders  to  modify 
the  Brahrr^as  and  Cochins  to  such  an  extent  that  they  soon 


34  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 

became  almost  a  mass  of  feathers,  and,  especially  in  England, 
they  became  so  deficient  in  table  quality  and  egg  production 
as  to  be  almost  useless  for  anything  but  show  purposes. 

In  America  the  desire  for  full-feathered  Cochins  did  not  begin 
tmtil  1890.  At  first  the  general  preference  was  for  long  legs, 
vulture  hocks,  and  leg  and  toe  feathering  so  profuse  as  to  give 
the  shank  and  toe  feathering  the  appearance  of  intermingling 
with  the  stiff  feathers  of  the  hock.  This  style  of  feathering 
never  became  so  popular  in  America  as  in  England,  but  the 
desire  for  it  spread  quickly,  and  from  that  time  till  the  present 
full-feathered  Cochins  have  been  bred  in  America  with  the 
fewest  possible  stiff  feathers  at  the  hock.  In  America  the 
changing  of  the  Brahma  type  began  about  the  year  1900".  Leg 
and  toe  feathering,  with  fluffy  and  full  cushion,  was  at  first 
permitted,  and  this  was  increased  until  finally  the  Brahma 
rivaled  the  Cochin  in  this  respect.  The  most  remarkable 
change  in  these  fowls  occurred  when  the  breeders  and  judges 
alike  began  to  favor  a  Brahma  with  a  slight  stoop  like  that  of 
the  Cochin,  with  profuse  body  feathering,  and  with  a  head  that 
lacked  the  distinctive  wide  skull  of  the  Brahma,  with  the  pro- 
jection over  the  eyes — in  fact,  a  head  that  resembled  that  of  a 
Brahma  capon  a  year  old. 

From  the  beginning  of  their  decline  as  general-purpose  fowls, 
year  by  year  fewer  and  fewer  of  the  Brahmas  and  Cochins  have 
been  shown,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  they  are  beautiftil  in  form 
and  color  and  therefore  highly  ornamental.  Asiatic  fowls  have 
continued  to  lose  popiilarity  imtil  they  are  now  kept  mainly 
to  gratify  the  artistic  tastes  of  lovers  of  beautiful  poultry,  who 
care  but  little  for  utility  qualities.  The  most  beautifully 
colored  Buff  and  Partridge  Cochin  fowls  have  been  produced 
in  recent  years.  They  are  a  wonderfiil  creation  and  a  great 
credit  to  the  fancier's  art.  The  same  is  also  true  of  the  Light 
and  the  Dark  Brahma  fowls,  which  have  the  most  exquisite 
colors  and  markings.  In  fact,  as  beautiful  poultry,  the  Cochins 
and  the  Brahmas  have  no  rivals  except  the  fowls  of  the  Pohsh 
family.  These,  Hke  the  Asiatics,  are  very  beautiful,  but  are 
not  generally  popular,  nor  are  they  kept  to  any  extent  even  for 
exhibition  purposes. 


§  1  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  35 

Some  strains  of  Brahmas  are,  however,  still  valued  as  market 
poiiltry  and  are  highly  esteemed  in  the  few  localities  in  which 
they  are  raised.  In  some  parts  of  New  England,  for  instance, 
where  soft  roasters  are  grown,  the  Brahmas  are  popiilar.  If 
they  coiild  be  procured  of  the  type  of  former  days  they  would 
be  much  more  valuable. 

31.  Rise  of  tlie  Legliorn  and  Decline  of  the  Minorca. 

The  Leghorns,  since  their  origination  by  the  breeders  of  America, 
have  held  first  place  for  the  production  of  eggs.  The  Minorcas, 
formerly  prolific  layers  of  white-shelled  eggs  of  large  size,  were 
their  only  rivals.  Differences  in  breeding,  however,  have 
placed  practically  all  varieties  of  Leghorns  in  the  lead.  The 
breeders  of  America  and  Australia  have  adhered  to  the  egg- 
producing  type  of  Leghorn,  and  have  refused  to  change  the 
standard  description  of  this  breed  so  as  to  take  from  it  any 
body  proportions  favorable  to  egg  production.  England  has 
sacrificed  utility  form  for  exhibition  quality  in  Leghorns  to  an 
extent  that  has  lessened  their  egg  production  and  made  them 
a  coarser  type  of  fowls.  The  practice  of  breeding  Leghorns  of 
too  great  size  has,  however,  changed  in  England  since  1908, 
because  the  breeders  have  been  convinced  that  the  American 
and  Australian  type  of  Leghorn  produces  a  larger  number  of 
eggs. 

Even  greater  changes  have  been  made  in  the  Minorca. 
They  have  been  transformed  from  a  light  weight  to  a  weight 
that  fully  equals  and  frequently  surpasses  that  of  the  Plym- 
outh Rock.  Large  Minorcas  produce  large  eggs,  but  their 
egg  yield  per  year  has  decreased  in  proportion  as  their  size  of 
body  has  increased.  There  has  been  some  objection  to  increas- 
ing the  size  of  Minorcas,  but  so  far  no  attention  has  been  paid 
to  it;  in  fact,  more  rather  than  less  weight  is  generally  desired. 

32.  Popularity  of  tlie  General-I*urpose  Breeds. — The 

Plymouth  Rock  and  the  Wyandotte  breeds  have  gained  in  pop- 
ularity, because  the  fowls  of  these  breeds  have  been  bred 
nearer  and  nearer  to  the  line  of  utility  demands.  The  Barred 
Plymouth  Rock  has  steadily  held  the  place  of  honor  for  both 
exhibition  and  market  poultry,  and  more  of  this  variety  of 


36  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 

fowls  are  kept  for -utility  purposes  throughout  America  than 
of  any  other  kinds,  and  although  the  demands  for  exhibition 
quality  have  changed,  no  change  that  would  lessei;i  the  value 
of  the  Plymouth  Rock  for  egg  production  or  for  market  poultry 
has  been  permitted.  The  White  Plymouth  Rock,  the  closest 
rival  of  the  barred  variety,  has  likewise  been  improved  in  both 
utility  and  exhibition  qualities.  The  former  creaminess  of 
plumage  of  the  white  variety  has  been  removed,  and  specimens 
with  perfectly  white  plumage  and  yellow  beaks  and  shanks 
are  the  idols  of  the  show  room.  The  body  proportions  of  the 
Plymouth  Rock  continue  to  be  preferred,  and  these  fowls  seem 
to  be  the  only  rivals  of  the  old-time  Brahmas  in  districts  where 
capons  and  soft  roasters  are  produced. 

33.  The  Wyandottes  are  good  utility  fowls,  because  they 
have  been  kept  within  a  form  and  size  best  suited  to  their 
natural  qualities.  The  Partridge  Wyandotte  has  lost  favor  in 
America  as  a  utility  fowl,  and  this  has  been  because  of  a  per- 
sistent determination  to  have  dark  colored  plumage  in  this 
variety.  The  Partridge  Wyandotte  holds  an  enviable  position 
among  general-purpose  fowls  in  England,  because  in  that 
country  a  lighter  color  has  been  favored  in  the  plumage. 

The  Wyandotte  form,  which  borders  on  that  of  the  Cochin, 
is  beautiful  for  exhibition  poultry,  but  no  fowl  of  such  pro- 
portions can  be  prolific  in  the  production  of  eggs  nor  grow 
quickly  into  the  best  of  table  poultry.  This  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  heavy  growth  of  feathers  requires  so  much  nourish- 
ment that  it  lessens  the  amount  of  breast  meat  and  renders 
the  fowl  incapable  of  laying  as  many  eggs  as  a  more  scantily 
feathered  fowl. 

White  Wyandottes  of  proper  type  are  beautiful  exhibition 
poultry,  excellent  for  table  poultry,  and  good  egg  producers. 
The  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte  fowls  at  one  time  (about  1905) 
held  first  place  for  several  years  as  the  most  prolific  egg  pro- 
ducers tested  in  public  competition.  The  prolific  egg-pro- 
ducing qualities  of  the  Wyandottes  in  general  and  their  excel- 
lence as  market  poultry  will  continue  as  long  as  the  form  and 
body  proportions  best  suited  for  utility  and  exhibition  pur- 


§  1  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  37 

poses  are  kept  intact  and  a  tendency  to  enlarge  their  size  is 
checked.  The  clause  in  the  Standard  that  gave  preference, 
in  close  competition,  to  the  specimen  nearest  to  the  standard 
weight,  has  done  much  for  the  Wyandotte.  A  like  clause 
should  be  attached  to  the  Standard  demands  for  all  breeds 
and  varieties  that  have  a  standard  weight,  as  this  would  curb 
a  tendency  toward  unnaturally  large  or  small  size. 

34.  The  Rhode  Island  Red  fowls  are  among  the  best  in 
respect  to  proportions  for  market  poultry,  and  they  are  the 
most  prolific  producers  of  eggs  of  desirable  size ;  and  the  Stand- 
ard description  for  them  makes  equally  easy  their  production 
for  exhibition  and  for  utility  purposes.  The  tendency  at  pres- 
ent is  to  develop  them  into  a  square  form.  If  this  is  continued 
they  may  be  changed  from  most  desirable  general-purpose 
fowls  to  fowls  like  the  Malines  of  Belgium,  which  are  of  square 
form  and  desirable  for  table  poultry,  but  which  lack  in  egg- 
producing  qualities  and  in  beauty  for  exhibition.  For  all  pur- 
poses, the  Rhode  Island  Red  fowls  have  qualities  that  are 
seldom  excelled  by  those  of  any  other  breed,  though,  of  course 
they  can  be  so  improved  as  to  make  them  more  valuable  for 
egg  production,  for  table  potiltry,  and  for  exhibition.  But, 
shoiild  the  demand  for  more  beauty  change  their  natiu-al  form, 
they  will  be  sure  to  decline  in  general  value. 

35.  The  Houdans  and  the  FaveroUes  of  France  have  been 
molded  by  the  English  fanciers  into  fowls  of  beautiful  form 
and  color;  and  in  America  they  have  the  same  characters. 
As  a  result,  fowls  of  these  two  breeds  are  bred  only  by  a  few 
fanciers,  and  are  raised  largely  for  their  beauty  and  for  the 
high  price  obtainable  for  exceptionally  fine  exhibition  speci- 
mens. They  were  prolific  egg  producers,  and,  as  originally 
bred,  they  were  the  best  of  market  poultry.  These  utility 
qualifications  combined  with  their  exhibition  qualities  should 
have  given  them  supremacy  over  others,  yet  they  are  almost 
imknown  in  many  localities. 

36.  There  is  a  difference  in  the  attitude  taken  by  the 
English  and  the  American  fanciers  in  regard  to  exhibition 
poultry.     In  England  there  is  a  tendency  to  increase  exhi- 


38  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 

bition  qualities  at  the  expense  of  utility  qualities.  Through- 
out England,  the  Dorking,  the  Sussex,  and  the  Orpington  fowls 
are  prime  favorites  as  general-purpose  fowls,  and  yet  a  tendency 
has  been  shown  to  alter  them  in  such  a  way  as  to  diminish 
their  utility  qualities.  On  the  other  hand,  the  tendency  in 
America  has  been  to  improve  the  Orpington  not  only  in  exhi- 
bition qualities  but  also  in  egg  production  and  in  table  qualities. 
The  same  has  also  been  attemped  with  the  Dorking,  the 
Houdan,  the  FaveroUe,  and  the  Cornish,  or  Indian,  Game 
fowls. 

An  overdevelopment  of  form  or  color  of  fowls  of  any  breed 
or  variety  that  improves  their  appearance  at  the  expense  of 
their  utility  qualities  is  apt  to  cause  that  breed  or  variety  to 
decline  in  public  favor. 

37.  Ill  Effects  of  Excessive  Development  of  One 
Qualitj^. — In  breeds  excessively  developed  in  any  one  quality 
there  is  little  possibility  of  combining  both  exhibition  and 
utility  qualities,  and  such  breeds  are  likely  to  decline  in  public 
favor.  There  are  many  instances  of  this.  The  original  Black 
Spanish  fowls,  for  instance,  were  among  the  best  egg  producers 
of  their  time.  The  white  formerly  extended  but  little  below 
the  face,  but  this  has  been  increased  until  it  covers  the  face 
and  extends  down  on  the  neck.  The  development  of  this 
white  below  the  face,  an  increase  in  the  size  of  the  comb,  and 
neglect  of  form  have  continued  imtil  the  proportions  of  the  body 
have  been  so  altered  as  to  deprive  the  fowls  of  their  former 
excellence  as  table  poiiltry  and  to  lessen  their  egg  production. 
The  Black  Spanish  are  now  examples  of  extreme  development 
in  head  points,  but  they  have  ceased  to  be  utility  poultry. 

The  crest  of  the  Polish,  the  graceful  bearing  of  the  game, 
the  large  comb  of  the  Minorca,  and  the  stilty  form  of  the  highest 
type  of  English  Langshans  are  examples  of  extreme  breeding. 
None  of  these  features  was  present  in  the  original  type  of  any 
of  these  fowls,  and  the  changes  have  so  altered  them  as  to  make 
them  absolutely  distinct  from  the  original  type,  Although 
the  appearance  of  some  may  have  been  improved,  none  of  these 
breeds  has  advanced  in  public  favor. 


§  1  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  39 

38.  The  Minorca  is  a  fowl  that  has  been  greatly  developed 
in  one  direction  at  the  sacrifice  of  its  utihty  qualities.  It  has 
been  changed  to  a  fowl  with  a  large  comb  and  wattles  and  long 
legs,  and  has  been  so  altered  as  to  have  the  appearance  of  a 
fowl  of  a  different  breed.  From  the  beginning  of  the  popularity 
of  the  Minorca,  and  until  about  1900,  the  Black  Leghorn  v/as 
almost  forgotten ;  since  the  Minorca  has  been  so  greatly  changed 
the  Black  Leghorn  has  returned  to  popular  favor.  The 
Minorca,  however,  has  genuine  merit,  and  might  still  be  more 
generally  distributed  were  it  not  for  the  excessive  growcn  of 
comb.  Excessively  large  comb  and  wattles  not  only  reqiiire 
special  protection  during  the  winter  months,  but  they  require 
so  much  blood  to  sustain  them  that  the  bodily  heat  is  dimin- 
ished and  egg  production  lessened.  Because  of  these  reasons, 
some  Minorcas  used  in  breeding  pens  are  dubbed,  that  is,  their 
combs  are  cut  off  to  a  short  stub,  as  in  the  case  of  game 
fowls  used  for  fighting  in  the  pit.  The  Minorcas  of  America 
have  less  comb  than  is  sought  for  in  England,  and  if  they  had 
still  less  comb  they  would  undoubtedly  be  more  popular  than 
they  are. 

39.  Some  fowls  have  been  developed  so  much  in  one  or 
more  exhibition  qualities  that  it  seems  as  if  the  fanciers  did 
not  care  whether  or  not  the  fowls  had  utility  qualities.  The 
game,  Polish,  and  Hamburg  fowls  are  examples  of  this.  The 
original  type  of  Old-English  Game  had  a  perfect  form  for  table 
meat  and  egg  production,  and  the  Polish  and  Hamburgs  of 
years  ago  were  known  as  "everlasting  layers."  These  qualities 
were  lost  in  a  measure  in  the  transformation  from  their  original 
to  their  present  forms.  The  modern  game  fowl  has  been  made 
so  tall  that  it  bears  practically  no  resemblance  to  the  Old- 
English  Game,  and,  as  a  result,  the  modem  game  is  seldom 
seen  except  in  the  possession  of  a  few  enthusiastic  fanciers. 
The  original  Polish  and  Hamburg  have  also  been  lost,  the 
modem  types  looking  like  different  breeds.  Their  places  have 
been  filled  to  some  extent  by  the  Braekels  and  Campines, 
which  have  been  revived;  they  are  becoming  popular  for 
utility  and  exhibition  purposes. 


40  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 

The  value  of  medium  form  for  a  breed  is  not  always  realized, 
and  the  changing  of  a  breed  to  make  it  better  for  one  particular 
purpose  frequently  leads  to  undesirable  consequences  in  other 
directions.  For  instance,  the  development  of  excessive  size 
in  the  Plymouth  Rock  intended  for  caponizing  has  destroyed 
the  fitness  of  many  strains  for  the  show  room,  and  it  will  be 
impossible  to  maintain  the  utility  type  so  strongly  present 
in  all  varieties  of  Plymouth  Rock  that  conform  to  the  stand- 
ard weight,  if  the  fowls  are  bred  to  weigh  several  pounds  more 
than  this  weight.  This  increase  in  size  changes  the  general 
contour  of  the  fowls  so  materially  as  to  make  it  appear  quite 
imHke  the  Plymouth  Rock.  Whenever  this  occurs,  the  fowls, 
of  course,  lose  their  exhibition  value,  and  such  occurrences 
win  eventually  cause  the  fanciers  to  turn  to  some  other  breed, 
like  the  Light  Brahma  or  some  other  Asiatic,  to  be  developed 
into  a  fowl  that  can  secure  in  the  show  room  the  highest  honors 
for  large  size. 

40.     Tendency  to  Strive  for  Original  Qualities. — In 

America  there  is  a  tendency  among  poultry  fanciers  to  strive 
to  get  the  qualities  originally  found  in  the  various  breeds  and 
varieties  of  fowls.  It  is  only  after  fowls  have  been  changed 
a  great  deal  that  the  sterling  qualities  of  the  original  types 
have  come  to  be  fully  appreciated.  The  growing  popularity 
of  the  Columbian  Wyandotte,  the  Columbian  Plymouth  Rock, 
and  the  Surrey  fowls  speaks  strongly  in  favor  of  the  qualities 
of  the  Brahma  of  former  days.  These  fowls  have  color  and 
markings  identical  with  those  of  the  Light  Brahma.  The 
Wyandotte  form  prevails  in  the  Columbian  Wyandotte,  and 
the  Plymouth  Rock  form  is  being  established  in  the  Columbian 
Plymouth  Rock.  The  Light-Brahma  colored  Siirrey  fowls 
are  well  thought  of  both  in  England  and  in  Canada.  The 
color  and  markings  of  the  Dark  Brahma  have  been  again 
brought  into  public  favor  by  the  Silver  Penciled  Wyandotte 
and  the  Silver  Penciled  Plymouth  Rock. 

In  addition  to  the  return  to  Brahma  colors  and  markings 
in  the  general-purpose  breeds,  a  disposition  has  recently  been 
shown  by  poultrymen  to  bring  the  Brahmas  themselves  back 


§  1  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  41 

to  a  utility  form.  If  this  tendency  continues  this  breed  will 
become  more  popular  than  ever.  Whether  or  not  utility  quali- 
ties will  be  established  in  the  Brahmas  will,  however,  depend 
on  the  judgment  of  the  breeders.  They  must  realize  that  in 
the  modernized  type  of  Brahma  they  should  have  a  fowl  that 
will  be  suitable  not  only  for  a  heavy-weight  roaster,  but  also 
for  a  soft  roaster  or  a  capon  with  more  meat  of  a  better  quality 
than  a  fowl  of  any  other  breed  or  variety,  and  that  will  answer 
well  for  egg  production. 

41.  Between  1880  and  1885  a  brisk  controversy  over  the 
method  of  placing  awards  on  poultry  brought  out  the  dif- 
ferences between  the  poultry  of  different  countries  and  the 
changes  that  had  been  made  in  certain  breeds  of  poultry. 
At  that  time  high  officials  in  the  service  of  the  English  gov- 
ernment claimed  that  only  form  and  feathers  were  considered 
important  in  England,  and  that  utility  qualities  were  not 
given  sufficient  attention.  Throughout  this  controversy  the 
French  were  lauded  for  preserving  the  table  qualities  of  their 
fowls  instead  of  paying  undue  attention  to  plumage  color  and 
head  points.  To  bring  out  the  contrast  between  the  English 
and  the  French  ideals  in  poultry,  it  was  claimed  that  Houdan 
fowls,  at  that  time  the  most  popular  breed  for  market  poultry, 
had  been  imported  from  France  into  England  and  had  been 
markedly  injured  in  table  quahties  by  the  English  fanciers, 
who  had  handled  them  for  exhibition  purposes  only,  and  had 
bred  them  to  form  and  feather  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  high 
prices  for  them  as  show-room  fowls.  The  breeders  of  France 
still  continue  to  pay  more  attention  to  size  and  egg-laying 
qualities  in  their  fowls  than  to  fancy  points. 

42.  Results  of  Domestication. — Domestication  of  fowls 
has  caused  an  increase  of  weight  and  egg  production,  and  an 
improvement  in  the  quahty  of  their  meat  and  plumage  color. 
It  has  also  resulted  in  greatly  increasing  the  number  of  breeds 
and  varieties  of  fowls.  Jungle  fowls,  in  their  wild  state,  rarely 
exceed  3  or  4  pounds  in  weight,  but  there  are  records  of 
instances  in  which  they  have  been  developed  to  a  weight  of 
6  pounds   by  domestication.      This  increase  was  due  to  the 


42  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 

fact  that  they  had  less  freedom,  more  food,  and  a  change  of 
environment.  Care  in  the  selection,  management,  and  feed- 
ing of  the  European  varieties  of  fowls  has  resulted  in  a  marked 
increase  in  their  size.  The  fowls  that  were  imported  to  Europe 
and  America  from  the  Orient  were  originally  much  larger  than 
the  European  and  American  breeds  and  have  been  increased 
in  size  mitil  they  now  weigh  considerably  more  than  when  they 
came  from  China. 

The  increase  in  egg  production  has  been  even  more  marked 
than  the  increase  in  size.  The  egg  production  of  the  wild 
species  of  fowls  has  been  reckoned  at  from  4  to  12  eggs  to  a 
clutch,  and  as  naturalists  state  that  the  jungle  fowls  raise  two 
broods  in  a  season,  this  wotild  mean  an  egg  production  of 
from  8  to  24  eggs  a  year.  The  average  yield  of  large  flocks  of 
thousands  of  domestic  fowls  has  been  increased  to  as  much 
as  135  eggs  a  year;  numerous  hens  have  laid  as  many  as 
200  eggs  a  year,  and  there  are  a  few  records  of  250  eggs  for 
a  single  hen.  

RANGES  AND  HOUSES  FOR  EXHIBITION 
POULTRY 


RANGES 

43.  Ranges  of  the  proper  kind  are  very  necessary  for 
poultry  intended  for  exhibition  purposes,  because  fowls  on  good 
ranges  will  generally  have  the  most  beautiful  plumage  they 
are  capable  of  growing,  and  also  fine  health  and  abiuidant 
vitality.  Ranges  with  plenty  of  shade  trees  and  bushes  are 
the  most  desirable,  but  if  white  or  light-plumaged  fowls  are 
kept,  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  none  of  the  bushes 
possess  juice  of  a  kind  that  will  stain.  It  is  impossible  to  wash 
some  of  these  stains  from  white  plumage.  When  dark-plu- 
maged  fowls  are  kept,  the  character  of  the  underbrush  or 
shrubbery  is  not  so  important. 

When  permitted  to  live  continuously  imder  favorable  con- 
ditions and  to  enjoy  considerable  freedom  on  the  range,  the 
plumage  of  fowls  will  t^ke  on  a  gloss  that  can  be  produced  iii 


43 


44  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 

no  other  way,  though  proper  care  and  feeding  also  help  to 
improve  the  gloss  on  the  plumage.  However,  all  fanciers  are 
not  located  so  that  they  can  give  their  fowls  ideal  natural  sur- 
roundings, but  they  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  more  nearly 
they  can  approach  such  conditions  the  more  satisfactory  will 
be  the  resiilts.  Orchards,  com  fields,  and  fruit  gardens  where 
currant  and  other  fruit  bushes  abound  may  be  made  to  serve 
as  a  good  substitute  for  more  natural  siuroundings. 

44.  An  almost  perfect  substitute  for.  a  natural  range  is 
shown  in  Fig.  2.  The  range  is  an  acre  of  ground  planted  with 
fruit  trees  and  enclosed  by  a  wire  fence.  In  such  an  enclosure 
one  hundred  hens  may  be  kept  separate  from  the  males  during 
the  summer  months.  The  plot  is  divided  into  four  separate 
yards,  and  each  yard  can  be  used  for  a  breeding  pen  for  fowls, 
or  for  an  outdoor  nursery  for  mother  hens  and  their  broods. 
After  the  chicks  are  weaned  they  can  remain  in  the  yard  until 
grown  to  maturity.  As  they  grow  the  least  desirable  of  all 
may  be  sold  as  broilers.  All  cockerels  not  needed  should  be 
used  for  this  purpose.  As  they  mature,  the  cockerels  kept 
should  be  separated  from  the  pullets,  either  by  fencing  them 
apart  on  the  same  range  or  by  moving  the  cockerels  to  another 
range. 

When  fowls  of  any  kind,  but  exhibition  fowls  especially, 
are  confined  in  enclosures,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  keep 
the  enclosiu-es  clean  and  in  a  perfectly  sanitary  condition.  The 
grass  in  the  enclosure,  if  any,  should  be  raked  frequently  to 
remove  the  accumulations  of  filth.  If  grass  grows  long  and 
profusely,  it  shoiild  be  trimmed  with  a  lawn  mower  and  all 
filth  raked  up  and  taken  away.  Grass  seed  should  be  sown 
after  each  raking  to  keep  up  a  plentiful  supply  of  grass.  If 
the  ground  is  bare  it  should  be  swept  clean  with  a  stiff  broom 
so  that  part  of  the  top  soil  is  brushed  away.  These  cleanings 
and  those  from  the  grass  will  make  good  fertilizer.  To  renew 
or  cleanse  the  soil  it  should  be  plowed  up,  raked  over,  and 
leveled,  and  wheat  screenings,  oats,  and  grass  seed  sown. 

Exhibition  poultry  with  yellow  shanks  should  not  be  kept 
for  any  length  of  time  in  yards  or  on  roosts  where  lime  has  been 


46  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  1 

sprinkled,  because  lime  is  likely  to  bleach  the  shanks.     Even 
dark-colored  shanks  may  be  changed  by  lime. 

45.  Three  or  four  acres  of  groimd  may  be  arranged  for  a 
home,  a  garden,  and  pens  for  breeding  poultry.  When  this 
is  done,  proper  fencing  to  confine  the  poultry  is  of  prime  impor- 
tance. A  plan  for  such  an  arrangement  is  shown  in  Fig.  3. 
The  home  is  in  the  background,  and  directly  in  front  of  this  is 
a  house  a  and  runways  for  keeping  half-grown  pullets  and 
cockerels  separate.  By  arranging  the  runways  according  to 
the  plan  shown,  the  fowls  have  the  greatest  yard  room  with 
the  least  house  room.  Broody  hens  may  be  broken  of  their 
desire  to  sit  by  keeping  them  for  a  short  time  in  the  yard  b,  or 
this  yard  may  be  used  for  mother  hens  and  young  chicks. 

In  the  background  at  the  left  of  the  dweUing  house  is  a 
brooder  house  c,  the  upper  part  of  which  is  used  as  a  feed 
room,  and  under  the  buUding  is  an  incubator  cellar.  Next  to 
this  building  are  fattening  pens  and  a  room  where  killing  and 
dressing  may  be  done. 

In  the  foreground  on  the  left  are  breeding  yards,  which  are 
equipped  with  colony  houses  like  that  shown  in  Fig  4,  and  in 
each  yard  is  placed  a  small  house  like  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  7. 
This  may  be  used  for  a  brood  coop  or  a  cockerel  house.  In 
this  way  three  males  can  be  bred  to  each  lot  of  hens,  which  is 
accomplished  by  allowing  one  to  nui  with  the  hens  and  keeping 
the  other  two  confined. 

The  plan  given  for  arranging  a  small  tract  is  adapted  from 
the  plan  on  a  "small  holding"  in  England,  where  the  ptirpose 
is  to  secure  eggs,  market  poultry,  and  fowls  for  exhibition. 

Fruit  trees  shotdd  be  planted  outside  of  and  along  the  fence 
Hne  of  the  yards.  If  the  yards  are  more  than  30  feet  long, 
some  trees  should  also  be  planted  in  the  middle.  The  mistake 
of  planting  too  many  trees  should,  however,  be  avoided.  AU 
the  shade  the  fowls  need  is  enough  to  run  under  when  they 
want  to  be  protected  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  Too 
much  shade  wiU  be  likely  to  make  the  ground  too  damp  for 
poultry,  and  too  many  trees  inside  of  the  yards  wiU  also  make 
it  difficult  to  plow  and  cultivate  the  soil. 


So  stAndArd-bred  poultry  1 1 


HOUSES  AND  COOPS 

46.  Houses  and  coops  for  fowls  for  exhibition  shotild  be 
built  and  arranged  to  meet  the  requirements  of  breeding  for 
exhibition.  That  is,  fowls  for  exhibition  must  be  kept  in 
small  flocks  if  good  results  are  to  be  obtained,  and  must  be 
confined  in  well-fenced  enclosures  so  as  to  prevent  the  fowls 
of  different  flocks  from  becoming  mixed,  and  to  prevent  hens 
from  mating  with  any  males  except  those  selected  for  mating 
with  them. 

The  houses  best  suited  for  exhibition  poultry  are  colony 
houses  similar  to  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  4,  and  connected 
apartment  houses  like  that  shown  in  Fig.  5.  The  plan  of  this 
connected  apartment  house  is  shown  in  Fig.  6.  When  space 
is  limited,  and  where  two  or  more  matings  are  kept,  no  house 
will  be  better  than  the  one  shown  in  Fig.  5.  The  chief  advan- 
tage of  the  colony  house  is  its  isolation  from  other  houses, 
and  hence  in  keeping  the  fowls  free  from  outside  distiu-bances. 
The  colony  house,  however,  has  the  disadvantage  that  consid- 
erable labor  is  required  to  care  for  it  properly.  The  other  two 
styles  of  houses  mentioned  are  more  generally  used,  because 
they  can  be  cared  for  with  much  less  labor. 

The  interior  arrangement  of  houses  for  exhibition  poultry 
will  also  be  necessarily  somewhat  different  from  that  of  houses 
intended  for  utility  poiiltry.  For  instance,  more  space  must  be 
allowed  between  the  roosting  poles  for  exhibition  fowls  than  for 
utility  fowls,  in  order  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible,  the  breaking 
of  any  of  the  wing  and  tail  feathers.  To  prevent  the  long  sickle 
feathers  from  striking  the  wall,  the  back  roost  pole  should  be 
placed  from  18  to  24  inches  from  the  wall;  a  like  distance  shoiild 
be  maintained  between  each  two  roost  poles.  When  a  large 
number  of  cockerels  are  kept  in  one  house,  more  space  than  this 
between  the  roost  poles  will  be  of  advantage.  Enough  roosting 
space  should  be  provided  in  each  house  so  that  each  fowl  will 
have  from  12  to  14  inches.  This  much  space  is  needed  to  allow 
the  fowls  to  turn  about  while  on  the  roost  and  to  move  about 
on  the  roosts  without  crowding  and  annoying  one  another  to 
the  extent  of  becoming  irritated  and  quarrelsome. 


§  1  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  51 

47.  After  the  breeding  season  has  passed,  and  when  the 
time  comes  for  separating  the  sexes,  the  females  may  be  allowed 
to  stay  in  the  breeding  pens  or  they  may  be  turned  out  together 
to  range  in  a  field  or  orchard.  The  males  may  be  kept  in 
small  coops  or  sheds  either  alone  or  two  or  more  together, 
provided  they  do  not  quarrel.  Some  males  will  not  live 
quietly  together  in  pairs;  others  will  live  peacefully  in  flocks 
of  three  or  four.  Males  may  be  kept  in  a  number  of  places. 
A  low  shed  for  a  roosting  place,  and  small  runs  in  the  open  on 
the  north  side  of  the  shed  where  there  is  but  little  sunshine, 
will  be  a  suitable  provision  for  them.  Under  such  conditions 
they  will  molt  and  grow  as  clean,  clear  plumage  as  fowls  that 
are  kept  continuously  in  airy  buildings  or  in  large  coops  inside 
of  such  buildings. 

Fowls  are  sometimes  provided  with  rough  rustic  coops,  or 
with  shelters  made  of  odd  pieces  of  boards,  rails,  or  poles  and 
roofed  over  with  boards  that  extend  out  over  the  sides  to  shed 
water  and  keep  out  the  sun.  Such  shelters  may  be  placed  in 
fields  of  growing  com,  and  made  large  enough  to  accommodate 
from  three  to  five  hens,  or  from  two  to  three  cocks.  Fowls 
that  molt  under  such  conditions  will  be  in  fine  shape  for  exhibi- 
tion at  the  fall  fairs  and  winter  shows. 

In  many  parts  of  the  world  in  which  the  finest  exhibition 
poultry  is  raised  the  males  are  kept  in  coops  similar  to  the  one 
shown  in  Fig.  7.  This  coop  is  6  feet  long,  3  feet  wide,  3  feet  high 
in  front,  and  2  feet  6  inches  high  in  the  rear.  It  is  divided  into 
two  coops,  each  of  which  is  3  feet  square.  Cocks  may  be  kept 
in  such  coops  during  their  molt  and  prior  to  the  show  season. 
Cockerels  may  be  kept  in  them  from  an  immatiire  age  until 
they  are  finished  either  for  sale  or  for  the  show  room.  It  is 
not  unusual  for  both  cocks  and  cockerels  to  be  kept  for  months 
at  a  time  in  such  coops.  White-plumaged  fowls  will  molt 
and  grow,  under  such  shelter,  a  new  coat  of  feathers  that  will, 
be  pure  white. 

48.  In  Fig.  8  is  shown  a  portable  coop  10  feet  wide  and 
12  feet  long  divided  into  four  compartments  each  3  feet  wide. 
The  part  a,  which  is  the  house  proper,  is  4  feet  long,  and  the 


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§  1  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  55 

covered  runway  6  is  6  feet  long,  and  is  fastened  to  the  house  by 
a  hasp  and  lock  c.  A  flap  d,  in  the  roofing  felt  prevents  leakage 
where  the  house  and  the  covered  run  join.  This  coop  is  siut- 
able  for  cocks,  cockerels,  or  hens  with  broods  of  chicks.  Two  or 
three  cockerels,  one  cock  and  two  yoimg  cockerels,  or  four 
females  may  be  kept  in  each  apartment.  Two  hens  with 
broods  of  chicks  will  be  well  protected  in  each  division.  This 
coop  is  also  suitable  for  cocks  during  and  after  the  season  of 
molt. 

49.  A  house  well  suited  for  the  care  of  fowls  for  exhibition 
is  shown  in  Fig.  9.  This  is  13  feet  high  at  the  center  and  10  feet 
high  at  the  eaves;  the  other  dimensions  are  given  on  the  illus- 
tration. The  front  room  in  the  main  part  of  the  house  is  a 
washing  room,  where  the  fowls  for  exhibition  are  washed. 
The  middle  room  is  a  drying  room,  where  the  fowls  are  kept 
after  washing  until  thoroughly  dry.  The  third  room  is  equipped 
with  coops  in  which  the  fowls  are  trained  for  the  show  room. 
The  three  rooms  are  heated  with  a  hot-water  heating  system. 
No  heat  is  needed  for  the  back  part  of  the  building. 

The  rear  portion  of  the  building  is  a  connected  appartment 
house,  with  a  hall  in  the  rear  and  small  rooms  in  front  of  the 
hall.  Some  of  these  rooms  are  8  feet  square  and  others  are 
4  feet  wide  and  8  feet  deep ;  these  rooms  may,  however,  be  made 
any  width  that  is  best  smted  to  the  needs  of  the  fowls.  Males 
and  females  intended  for  sale,  for  exhibition,  or  for  ready 
handling  may  be  kept  in  these  pens. 

Houses  of  this  kind  are  of  the  greatest  value  on  farms  where 
there  is  a  constant  demand  for  fowls  for  exhibition.  By  having 
a  large  number  of  fowls  constantly  imder  his  eye,  the  poultry- 
man  will  be  able  to  note  their  value,  and  can  thus  select  wisely 
for  shipment  without  much  danger  of  being  mistaken  in  pick- 
ing out  fowls  of  poor  quality.  Houses  of  this  kind  are  partic- 
ularly well  adapted  to  keeping  fowls  intended  for  exhibition. 
Fowls  that  are  too  nervous  for  sale  or  for  exhibition  will  soon 
become  tame  imder  the  influence  of  such  surroimdings. 


PRINCIPLES  OF  POULTRY 
BREEDING 


DEFINITIONS 

1.  Science  is  knowledge  gained  and  verified  by  observa- 
tion and  correct  thinking.  Knowledge  gained  by  experience 
may  be  faulty,  but  if  this  has  been  proved  or  verified  by 
repeated  observation  and  clear  thinking,  it  may  be  consid- 
ered as  reasonably  correct.  The  science  of  poultry  breed- 
ing might  be  described  as  the  acquired  ability  so  to  unite  or 
mate  true-bred  males  and  females  of  a  single  variety  as  to 
produce  from  this  mating  offspring  of  a  better  quality  than 
either  one  of  the  parents.  To  do  this  successfully  demands 
mating  in  pairs,  or  what  wotild  give  the  same  results,  caring  for 
the  eggs  in  such  manner  that  the  breeder  can  with  certainty 
identify  both  parents  of  the  offspring. 

The  practice  of  making  use  of  scientific  terms  in  treatises 
relating  to  poultry  has  become  so  prevalent  that  it  might  be 
of  advantage  to  have  the  meaning  of  these  recorded  prior  to 
taking  up  the  several  branches  of  scientific  breeding.  Not 
all  of  them  can  be  explained  within  a  reasonable  space,  but 
those  most  usually  employed  can  be  readily  imderstood  from 
a  brief  definition. 

An  acquired  cliaracter  is  one  not  native  or  innate,  but 
gained  by  training  or  treatment.  A  habit,  for  instance,  is 
acquired;  ill  temper  may  be  acquired  because  of  bad  treat- 
ment.   , 

57 


58  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §2 

Atavism  is  the  recurrence,  in  a  descendant,  of  characters 
of  a  more  or  less  remote  ancestor  instead  of  those  of  an  imme- 
diate or  near  ancestor,  or  of  any  ancestral  deformity  or  disease 
after  its  disappearance  for  one  or  more  generations;  inter- 
mittent heredity;  reversion. 

A  breed  of  fowls  is  a  race,  or  a  large  group,  the  individuals 
of  which  maintain  through  successive  generations  a  certain 
distinct  shape  of  body. 

A  dominant  character  is  a  controlling  one ;  that  is,  because 
of  its  superior  strength  it  will  assert  itself  to  the  exclusion  of 
other  characters.  Either  the  male  or  the  female  may  possess 
dominant  characters,  and  the  parent  possessing  such  char- 
acters will  have  the  greater  influence  over  the  characters  of 
the  offspring. 

Evolution  is  a  process  in  which,  by  a  series  of  continuous 
progressive  changes,  a  complex  organism  is  developed  from  a 
crude  or  simple  beginning.  In  poultry,  evolution  is  traced 
in  the  development  of  many  complex  breeds  and  varieties 
from  a  few  original  breeds. 

A  iiereditary  character  is  one  that  is  capable  of  being  trans- 
mitted from  parent  fowls  to  their  offspring.  It  is  possible  for 
acquired  characters  to  become  hereditary.  That  is,  fowls, 
because  of  improper  treatment,  may  acquire  bad  form,  become 
lacking  in  vitality,  etc.,  and  may  transmit  these  qualities  to 
their  young.  The  acquisition  and  transmission  of  desirable 
qualities,  such  as  the  opposite  of  those  mentioned,  also  take 
place. 

An  inheritance,  in  potiltry,  is  one  or  more  qualities  that  a 
chick  receives  from  its  ancestors.  For  example,  a  chick  may 
have  by  inheritance  undesirable  characters,  such  as  side  sprigs, 
off -colored  eyes,  or  bad  formation  of  any  part  of  the  body,  or 
desirable  characters,  such  as  uniform  color  and  markings. 

A  negative  character  is  one  that  has  a  predominating  or 
controlling  influence  for  bad  on  the  characters  of  the  offspring. 
It  is  the  opposite  of  a  positive  character. 

A  positive  character  is  one  that  has  a  predominating  or 
controlling  influence  for  good  on  the  character  of  the  offspring. 
It  is  the  opposite  of  a  negative  character.     Positive  and  nega- 


§  2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  59 

tive  elements  can  scarcely  ever  be  brought  together  in  such  a 
way  as  to  produce  beneficial  results  in  the  offspring. 

Nick,  as  used  by  poultrymen,  refers  to  the  mating  of  fowls 
specially  suited  to  each  other  in  their  qualities,  the  object  being 
to  produce  offspring  of  certain  desired  characters.  Desired 
results  will  not  be  produced  in  offspring  if  one  fowl  has  positive 
characters  and  the  other  negative  characters,  or,  in  other  words, 
if  the  fowls  do  not  nick  well.  Both  the  mating  and  the  offspring 
may  be  spoken  of  as  a  nick. 

A  preponderance  is  a  superiority  in  state,  quality,  force, 
or  influence  sufficient  for  overbalancing  anything  that  opposes 
it.  One  fowl  has  a  preponderance  over  another  fowl  in  a 
mating  when  it  has  the  greater  influence  in  determining  the 
character  of  the  offspring.  A  preponderance  may  be  for  either 
good  or  evil. 

A  prepotent  parent  fowl  is  the  one  that  has  more  dominant 
characters  than  the  other,  and  hence  it  will  have  the  greater 
influence  on  the  character  of  the  offspring. 

A  producing  male  or  female,  or,  as  commonly  called,  a  pro- 
ducer, is  a  fowl  that  has  produced  from  matings  with  each  of 
two  or  more  fowls  of  the  opposite  sex  at  different  periods  a  num- 
ber of  offspring  of  both  sexes  better  than  either  of  their  parents, 
and  which  offspring  are  in  their  turn  capable  of  producing 
from  several  matings  better  offspring  than  themselves.  To 
determine  the  producing  ability  of  a  fowl,  it  is  necessary  to 
mate  a  female  with  several  males,  to  mate  a  male  with  sev- 
eral females,  and  then  to  mate  some  of  the  best  offspring  with 
several  other  fowls.  The  original  fowls  cannot  be  considered 
satisfactory  producers  unless  a  fair  percentage  of  the  offspring 
in  the  first  and  second  generations  are  of  better  quality  than 
the  original  pair.  The  value  of  producers  to  a  breeder  is  very 
great,  for  it  is  only  by  breeding  from  such  fowls  that  system- 
atic progress  can  be  made  and  a  fair  percentage  of  prizes  won. 
Although  it  is  a  fact  that  individual  specimens  of  remarkable 
quality  have  been  produced  from  uncertain  matings,  seldom., 
if  ever,  have  these  individuals  been  capable  of  perpetuating 
their  own  qualities  in  the  offspring  or  of  giving  them  better 
qualities. 


60  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §2 

A  recessive  character  is  a  character  possessed  by  one 
parent,  which  may  not  appear  in  the  immediate  offspring, 
but  which  is  latently  present  and  capable  of  being  transmitted 
to  later  descendants.  A  recessive  character  is  the  opposite 
of  a  dominant  character. 

Reversion  is  a  return  to  or  toward  an  ancestral  type; 
atavism.  This  term  is  often  very  carelessly  used,  being  applied 
to  all  sorts  of  unsatisfactory  results  obtained  from  bad  matings. 
Not  all  defects  in  chicks  are  due  to  reversion.  They  are 
frequently  due  to  imdesirable  qualities  in  the  parents. 

Segregation  means  a  separation  of  a  collection  into  indi- 
viduals or  groups  of  individuals;  isolation. 

Unilateral  means  affecting  one  side  only. 

A  variation  is  a  deviation  in  structure,  color,  or  function 
from  the  type  or  parent  form. 

A  variety  of  fowls  is  a  subdivision  of  a  breed  in  which  the 
individuals  maintain  through  successive  generations  certain 
distinct  colors  in  their  plumage  in  addition  to  the  shape  char- 
acteristics of  the  breed. 


MENDEL'S  LAW 

2.  In  1865,  Gregor  Johann  Mendel,  an  Austrian  Augus- 
tinian  abbot,  read  several  papers  before  a  natural  history 
society  of  Briinn,  Austria.  The  papers  detailed  the  results 
of  experiments  made  by  the  abbot  in  crossing  varieties  of 
garden  pea  {Pisum  sativum)  and  certain  members  of  the  genus 
Hieracium.  The  experiments  had  continued  for  a  period  of 
8  years  and  had  been  made  in  an  extremely  careful  manner. 

The  papers  attracted  but  little  attention  at  the  time,  and 
were  soon  lost  and  forgotten  in  the  archives  of  the  society. 
About  the  close  of  the  last  century  came  an  increase  of  inter- 
est in  the  study  of  heredity,  and  Mendel's  papers  were  remem- 
bered and  exhumed  by  German  experimenters.  In  1901,  a 
translation  of  them  was  printed  in  the  journal  of  the  Royal 
Horticultural  Society  of  England. 

Although  Mendel  confined  his  investigations  to  the  grow- 
ing of  peas,  he  brought  into  notice  principles  that  have  been 


§  2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  61 

accepted  by  scientists  of  the  world  as  a  guide  for  further  inves- 
tigation. Mice,  guinea  pigs,  rabbits,  cage  birds,  and  poultry 
have  been  made  use  of  by  breeders  for  their  experiments, 
because  they  are  frequent  producers  of  young,  some  of  them 
multiplying  so  fast  as  to  reach,  in  one  year,  the  third  or 
fourth  generation.  It  is  less  difficult  to  reach  conclusions 
through  the  use  of  them  than  may  be  obtained  from  investi- 
gations carried  on  with  animals  that  produce  offspring  but 
once  a  year. 

Writings  on  Mendelism  are  as  yet  limited  in  English  to  a 
few  monographs;  in  German,  the  literature  of  the  subject  is 
somewhat  more  extensive. 

3.  Mr.  Chas.  B.  Davenport,  Director  of  the  Station  for 
Experimental  Evolution,  Carnegie  Institution,  Washington, 
D.  C,  has  defined  Mendel's  law  as  it  will  apply  to  poultry,  in 
the  following  statement: 

The  law  of  heredity  known  as  Mendel's  law  depends  upon 
three  principles.  First,  the  principle  of  independent  unit 
characters  according  to  which  each  of  the  characteristics  of 
poultry  is  a  unit  or  may  be  analyzed  into  units  which  are  inher- 
ited independently  of  one  another.  Thus,  the  color  of  the 
plumage  or  certain  parts  of  the  pattern,  the  form  of  the  comb, 
the  booting  on  the  feet,  and  the  ^ris  color  are  examples  of  such 
characteristics:  some  of  these  are  units  and  all  are  inherited 
independently  of  one  another.  A  consequence  of  this  prin- 
ciple is  that  we  may  have  a  rose-comb  black  bird,  a  rose-comb 
white,  a  rose-comb  game,  a  rose-comb  booted,  or  a  rose-comb 
with  clean  shanks;  that  is,  we  can  combine  the  booting  with 
any  form  of  comb,  plumage  color,  eye  color,  and  so  on. 

The  second  principle  is  that  the  unit  characters  are  not 
inherited  as  such,  but  the  only  thing  that  is  inherited  is  a  rep- 
resentative of  the  character  in  the  egg  or  sperm  cell.  Since 
this  representative  determines  what  the  character  shall  be, 
it  is  called  a  determiner.  It  follows  that  the  adult  characters 
of  the  parents,  grandparents,  and  so  on  are  not  inherited  in 
the  offspring,  but  that  offspring  and  parents  show  similar  char- 
acters ^because  there  are  similar  determiners  in  the  common 


62  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  2 

germ  plasm  from  which  they  develop.  Not  all  of  the  deter- 
miners that  are  in  the  germ  plasm  show  in  the  body  of  any 
individual,  and,  consequently,  the  offspring  may  differ  in 
appearance  from  the  parents  and  from  one  another  just  because 
they  do  not  all  have  exactly  the  same  determiners  in  their 
germ  plasm. 

The  third  principle  is  that  of  segregation,  or  separation  of 
the  different  determiners  in  the  germ  cells.  Suppose  one  parent 
has  no  extra  toe  and  the  other  parent  has  extra  toes,  then  the 
offspring  will  receive  the  determiner  for  extra  toes  from  one 
parent  only  and  not  from  the  other.  Now  when  such  offspring, 
whether  pullets  or  cockerels,  form  their  germ  cells,  some  of  the 
germ  cells  have  the  determiner  for  extra  toes  and  some  lack 
it.  If  brother  and  sister  of  this  generation  be  mated,  there 
may  be  in  the  fertilized  egg  no  determiner  for  extra  toes,  or 
the  determiner  for  extra  toes  may  come  from  both  parents 
or  from  one  only.  The  relative  frequency  of  these  three  occur- 
rences is  as  the  nimibers  1,  1,  2.  What  is  true  of  the  extra 
toe  is  true  of  the  other  unit  characters. 

These  three  principles  constitute  the  whole  of  the  modem 
theory  of  heredity,  and  by  keeping  them  constantly  in  mind 
we  are  enabled  to  make  any  desired  combinations  of  character- 
istics and,  within  limits,  to  predict  the  proportion  of  offspring 
having  the  different  combinations.  Let  me  illustrate  by  an 
example.  I  have  a  rose-comb  White  Leghorn  hen  and  a  single- 
comb  Black  Minorca,  and  I  wish  to  make  a  rose-comb  black 
from  these  parents.  I  mate  them  and,  provided  the  stock  on 
both  sides  is  perfectly  pure,  all  of  the  offspring  are  alike.  We 
suspect  that  the  white  color  of  the  White  Leghorn  is  due  to  a 
chemical  substance  in  the  embryo  that  prevents  the  develop- 
ment of  the  black  pigment.  Since  that  is  in  the  White  Leg- 
horn parent,  it  will  be  in  the  offspring  also,  and  consequently 
in  the  offspring  the  black  pigment  will  be  more  or  less  com- 
pletely prevented  from  developing.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  a 
certain  amount  of  black  pigment  may  appear  in  the  feathers 
of  the  pullets.  Since  the  rose-comb  has  a  determiner,  in  addi- 
tion to  that  of  the  single  comb,  which  determines  the  produc- 
tion of  the  lateral  parts  of  the  comb,  all  of  the  offspring  will 


§  2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  63 

have  this  determiner  from  the  rose-comb  White  Leghorn, 
and  all  will  show  a  rose  comb.  The  rose  comb  will  be  weak- 
ened, because,  in  the  hybrid,  it  develops  from  a  single  deter- 
miner instead  of  from  two.  The  consequence  of  this  is  that 
all  of  the  hybrids  between  our  rose-comb  white  and  single- 
comb  black  will  be  rose-comb  whites  much  like  the  mother, 
but,  according  to  the  principle  stated  above,  the  germ  cells 
of  these  white  birds  will  be  of  four  sorts,  namely:  (1)  with  the 
white  determiner  and  with  the  rose-comb  determiner;  (2)  with 
the  white  determiner  and  without  the  rose-comb  determiner 
(potential  single  comb);  (3)  without  the  white  determiner 
(potential  blacks)  and  with  the  rose-comb  determiner;  (4)  with- 
out the  white  determiner  and  without  the  rose-comb  deter- 
miner. Now,  since  both  in  the  females  and  in  the  males  the 
same  four  kinds  of  cells  are  produced  in  equal  numbers,  and 
since  it  is  a  matter  of  chance  which  one  of  the  four  kinds  of 
germ  cells  a  particular  kind  of  germ  cell  of  the  cock  shall  unite, 
it  follows  that  these  sixteen  combinations  are  equally  apt  to 
occur:  1-1,  1-2,  1-3,  1-4,  2-1,  2-2,  2-3,  2-^,  3-1,  3-2,  3-3,  3^, 
4-1,  4-2,  4-3,  4-4.  The  combination  1-1  wiU  give  the  rose- 
comb  whites  that  will  breed  true  like  the  original  rose-comb 
White  Leghorn.  The  combination  4-4  will  give  single-comb 
blacks  that  will  breed  true  like  the  Black  Minorca  with  which 
we  have  started.  Such  piire  birds  will  each  occur  in  one  case 
out  of  sixteen;  the  other  fourteen  will  be  more  or  less  mixed. 
In  the  combinations  3-3  or  3-4  we  shall  get  the  rose-comb 
black  which  we  were  seeking,  and  the  combination  2-2  or  2-A 
will  give  the  single-comb  white.  It  is  easy  to  see  what  the 
other  combinations  will  yield. 

By  the  application  of  these  principles  one  may  succeed  in 
making  the  desired  combinations  and  be  able  to  predict  the 
number  of  individuals  that  will  show  the  desired  combination 
in  the  second  hybrid  generation.  To  avoid  disappointment, 
it  must  be  said  that  many  apparently  simple  characters  are 
not  really  such,  but  are  analyzable  into  two  or  more  units; 
also  that  one  cannot'  tell  in  advance,  but  only  after  study, 
whether  a  particular  character  is  due  to  a  determiner  or  to  the 
absence  of  a  determiner.     Thus,  there  are  some  whites  that 


64  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  2 

are  due  to  the  absence  of  the  determiner  that  makes  black 
pigment,  and  consequently,  when  mated  with  blacks,  all  of 
the  offspring  are  black.  This  is  a  different  case  from  that  of 
the  White  Leghorn  in  which  the  determiner  for  black  pigment 
is  present,  but  an  additional  determiner  is  present  that  stops 
the  formation  of  the  black  pigment. 

4.     An  explanation  of  Mendel's  laws  expressed  in  an  alge- 
braic way  is  published  in  Nelson's  Encyclopedia  as  follows: 

Mendel  "chose  forms  of  garden  sweet  peas  that  are  known 
to  be  constant  from  generation  to  generation.  In  his  initial 
investigations  he  selected  seven  pairs.  Taking  two  forms, 
a  and  b,  which  differ  from  one  another  in  one  character  only; 
he  crossed  them,  and  so  produced  a  set  of  hybrid  offspring. 
Call  two  of  these  offspring  g  and  d.  Mendel's  doctrine  of 
heredity  in  its  most  general  form  is  as  follows:  As  the  result 
of  crossing  the  hybrid  forms  produced  by  his  first  operation, 
he  concluded  that  the  facts  are  explicable  only  on  the  hypothesis 
that  g  and  d  contain  each  an  equal  number  of  the  two  tj^pes 
of  sex  cells  (gametes)  contained  respectively  in  a  and  b.  This 
may  be  elaborated  thus:  If  we  call  the  distinguishing  char- 
acters possessed  respectively  by  a  and  b,  A  and  B,  then  all 
the  sex  cells  of  a  possess  the  character  A,  meaning  that,  if 
fertilized  by  sex  cells  of  the  same  type,  they  all  possess  the 
power  of  growing  into  organisms  displaying  the  character  A. 
So  also  with  the  sex  cells  oi  B.  But  on  Mendel's  supposition 
the  sex  cells  of  g  and  d  differ  from  those  of  the  ptire  parent 
forms  in  that  they  consist  of  equal  numbers  of  type  A  and 
g  ,  of   type   B.     In   graphic   form,  as 

~  shown  in  Fig.  1,  the  result   is   as 

follows :     There  are  thus  three  pos- 
sible  types   of   imion   which   may 
occur:     (1)  Sex  cells  of  type  A  may 
^^^'  ^  unite  with  type  A,  producing  pure 

forms;  (2)  sex  cells  of  type  B  may  imite  with  type  B, 
producing  another  series  of  pure  forms;  or  (3)  sex  cells  of 
type  A  may  unite  with  those  of  type  B,  producing  a  series 
of  hybrid  forms.     Fiu-ther,  on  the  doctrine  of  chance,  these 


§  2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  65 

hybrid  forms  may  tend  to  be  twice  as  numerous  as  either 
of  the  pure  forms,  so  that  in  100  fertilizations  there  will  tend 
to  be  25A's,  25  B'a,  and  50  A  B's.  In  algebraical  form,  (A -\-B) 
X(A-\-B)  =A^+2  A  B+B\  It  is  one  of  Mendel's  important 
contributions  to  science  that  he  proved  the  existence  of  this 
numerical  relation  among  hybrids.  His  proof  consisted  in 
rearing  hybrids  of  the  second  and  subsequent  generations, 
and  showing  that  those  which  we  have  described  as  type  A, 
if  inter  fertilized,  remain  constant  from  generation  to  generation, 
as  imder  similar  conditions  do  those  of  type  B.  On  the  other 
hand,  those  which  we  have  described  as  type  A  B,  when  inter- 
fertilized,  gave  rise  to  mixed  offspring.  This  theory  involves, 
of  course,  Weismann's  assumption  of  a  genu  plasm  as  some- 
thing apart  from  the  body  of  the  parent. 

"When  Mendel  crossed  a  and  b,  he  found  that  their  hybrid 
offspring  g,  d,  and  so  forth,  displayed  the  character  ^4,  to  the 
entire  exclusion  of  the  character  B.  To  this  character  he  gave 
the  name  of  dominant,  while  the  apparently  suppressed  char- 
acter he  called  recessive.  In  point  of  fact,  however,  the  off- 
spring are  of  three  types — the  pure-bred  A 's,  the  pure-bred  B's, 
and  the  third  type  described  as  A  B's.  These  forms  display 
the  dominant  or  A  character,  and  are  therefore  not  externally 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  pure-bred  A's.  But — and  this 
is  the  important  point — they  differ  in  that,  while  the  pure- 
bred A's  when  interfertilized,  5deld  again  pure-bred  A's  only, 
the  offspring  of  the  intercrossing  of  the  hybrid  forms  fall  into 
three  series — pure-bred  A's,  pure-bred  B's,  and  hybrid  forms 
or  A  B's  again.  A  little  reflection  will  therefore  show  that  the 
hybrid  orAB  forms  of  the  second  generation  are  entirely  com- 
parable, both  as  regards  the  character  of  their  germ  cells  and 
as  regards  their  body  or  somatic  characters,  to  the  hybrids 
of  the  first  generation — that  is  to  g  and  d.  Mendel's  principles 
seem  to  afford  a  rational  explanation  of  certain  hitherto  obscure 
phenomena  of  hybridization." 

5.     A     Method     for     Applying    Mendel's    Law. — The 

mathematics  involved  in  the  subject  of  Mendelism  has  so  far 
been  passed  over  as  too  difficult  for  the  general  reader.     The 


66 


STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY 


§2 


rather  advanced  subject  of  Probability  belonging  to  higher 
algebra  must  be  understood.  This  algebraic  process  is  used 
to  ascertain  the  probability  that  certain  characters  possessed 
by  plants  or  animals  will  reappear  in  their  offspring.  To 
employ  this  process  with  certainty  requires  considerable  skill 
in  mathematics.  There  is,  however,  a  phase  of  mathematics 
that  is  of  extreme  value  to  the  potdtry  fancier,  and  it  has  the 
merit  of  being  very  easily  used  and  understood,  and  it  is 
absolutely  exact.  It  enables  the  breeder  to  investigate  with 
perfect  precision  the  dominant  and  recessive  qualities,  as 
Mendel  called  them,  and  to  determine  whether  they  are  con- 
stant, or  erratic  and  variable.  Questions  of  the  influence  of 
sex,  color,  shape,  size,  etc.  can  be  answered  so  well  in  no  other 
way. 

Suppose,  for  example,  that  the  problem  to  be  solved  is  the 
creation  of  blue-plimiaged  fowls  by  the  well-known  method 
of  crossing  black  with  white.  In  the  notation  to  be  employed, 
b^  and  h  will  denote,  respectively,  a  black  male  and  a  black 
female;  w^  and  Wi  will  denote  a  white  male  and  a  white  female. 
When  a  black  male  is  mated  with  a  white  female,  the  cross 
will  be  b^  Wi;  the  reverse  of  this  will  be  &i  viA.  If  two  such 
crosses  are  mated,  the  result  will  be  6t  Wi.  Such  an  expres- 
sion as  6f  wi  would  denote  a  fowl  whose  qualities  of  every 


(2)b^  w' 


(3)  6'  M?, 


b,w^ 

*     6' «D, 

(Dbzw"" 

(3)  b\  w\ 

(2)  b\  w\ 

(4^)b^W2 

b*w. 


b'w. 


kind  are  derived  from  an  ancestry  of  two  black  males,  three 
black  females,  four  white  males,  and  three  white  females. 


§2 


STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY 


67 


Suppose,  now,  that  a  pair  of  blacks  and  a  pair  of  whites 
are  mated  in  every  possible  way.  Mating  black  with  black 
gives  bj — a  pure  black  like  its  parents,  if  the  strain  is  fully 
established.  Mating  the  black  female  with  the  white  male 
gives  bi  w^.  Mating  the  white  female  with  the  black  male 
gives  b^  Wi.  Finally,  the  white  pair  produces  wt.  The  process 
is  shown  by  the  diagram  of  Fig.  2.  If  sex  counts  for  any- 
thing, the  crosses  6i  w^  and  b^  Wi  should  show  it,  for  the  cross 


6,  w' 


h'w. 


h   w, 


(1)  6|  (5)  6|  w^      (9)b^w^     (13)  b\w\ 


(2)b^w^ 


(6)b^w^    (I0jb\w\ 


(7)b\w\     (IDb^w^ 


(4) b\ w?|      (8)b^  wj    (W)b^  w 


(U)b^w^ 


(M)b^w^ 


(16)  w% 


of  b^  Wi  has  for  its  an- 
cestors a  black  male 
and  a  white  female; 
the  cross  bi  w^  descends 
from  a  black  female 
and  a  white  male,  the 
sexes  being  reversed. 
The  next  step,  as 
shown  in  the  diagram  (3)  bf  w^ 
of  Fig.  3,  may  consist 
in  crossing  the  hy- 
brids 6i  w^  and  b^  Wi, 
or  the  entire  output 
of  the  first  mating  may 
be  crossed  in  every 
possible  way.  The 
combination  of  the 
cross  will  be  shown 
first.  The  cross  62  w^, 
nimibered  (1)  shows 
two  black  females  and 
two  white  males  as 
the  ancestors.  Mating  61  w^  with  b^  Wi  gives  b\  w{,  numbered 
(^),  in  which  both  sex  and  color  are  equal.  Mating  b^  Wi  on 
the  right  below  with  bi  w^  on  the  left  above  gives  b-}  w\,  num- 
bered (3).  Finally,  b^  Wi  on  the  right  below  with  the  same 
cross  on  the  right  above  gives  b^W2,  which  is  numbered  (4). 
This  cross  reverses  the  sexes  shown  in(l).  The  diagram  shows 
the  entire  operation.  It  will  be  noticed  that  for  the  first  time 
both  the  sexes  and  colors  are  evenly  balanced  in  (2)  and  (3). 


68  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY     .  §  2 

Now  take  the  entire  output  of  the  first  cross  and  combine 
in  every  possible  way,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  order  of  pro- 
cedure is  to  combine  the  first  term  on  the  left  below  with  each 
term  above ;  then  the  second  term  below  with  each  term  above, 
and  so  on.  Each  term  below  gives  a  colimm  of  four  terms 
and  these  in  the  four  columns  are  numbered  from  (1)  to  {16). 
The  four  enclosed  terms  (6),  (7),  (10),  and  (11)  are  the  same 
as  the  four  terms  represented  by  Fig.  3.  Of  these,  two  are 
perfect  crosses  and  two  show  the  sexes  reversed.  The  diagram 
shows  every  possible  combination,  and  a  study  of  these  crosses 
in  actual  life  would  be  very  instructive.  Combinations  (4), 
(7),  (10),  and  (13)  are  perfect  crosses,  evenly  balanced  with 
respect  to  color  and  sex.  If  qualities  are  transmitted  in  an 
erratic  way,  these  combinations  will  show  it.  Numbers  (1) 
and  (16)  are  pure  black  and  pure  white,  respectively;  (5)  has 
three  black  and  one  white,  and  (8)  has  one  black  and  three 
white;  from  these  combinations  the  comparative  influences 
of  color  can  be  seen.  Number  (S)  has  two  black  females 
and  (15)  has  two  white  females;  from  these  the  influences  of 
sex  can  be  learned.  In  fact,  something  is  shown  by  every 
pair  included  between  (1)  and  (16). 

This    method    of   notation   has   many    advantages.     It    is 

extremely  simple  and  renders  the  tagging  of  fowls  easy  and 

exact.     Again,  b  and  w  may  represent  any    quality  that  the 

breeder  may  desire  to  note,  such  as  comb,  shanks,  hackle,  feet, 

saddle,  etc.     In  continuing  this  process  of  crossing,  the  breeder 

may  find  that  black  is  dominant  over  white,  in  which  case  he 

may  cross  the  strong  in  white,  as  (14)  and  (15),  with  the  weak 

b^  w^  6i  ^2    in  black,  as  (8)  and  (IS).     This  will 

give  crosses  in  which  white  ancestry 

ft'  w^  ft  I  ^f    greatly    predominates    over  black. 

~     I  !     '     The  operation  may  be  such  as  to 

'  ^         "*■  '^13    giye  sixteen  crosses  or  only  four, 

(2jb^w^  (4)b    w^    th^  latter  being  shown  in  Fig.  5. 

In  these  combinations  the  white  is 

Fig.  5  three  times  the  black.     In  (1)   and 

(4)  the  sexes  are  reversed.     Ntimbers  (2)  and  (3)  should  show 
whether  transmission  is  constant  or  otherwise. 


§2 


STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY 


If  the  breeder  wishes  to  continue  the  process  of  hybridizing, 
as  he  naturally  will,  he  may  select  intelligently  and  make  his 
combinations  with  mathematical  certainty.  The  results  will 
no  doubt  be  disappointing,  for  there  are  many  unknown  fac- 
tors in  the  problem.  It  is  better,  however,  to  proceed  with 
precision  rather  than  at  random. 

Suppose  that  he  chooses  to  make  combinations  such  as  those 
shown  in  Fig.  6.  Here  the  results  are  in  strict  accordance 
with  Mendel's  law.  The  following  pairs  are  alike:  {3)  and 
(7),  (2)  and  U),  (6)  and  (8).  With  respect  to  sex  and  color 
(5)  is  perfectly  balanced,  and  (3)  and  (7)  have  the  white  male 
in    excess.      The    diagram         . ,      ,  ,  i      i 

perfectly   represents   the  ^  '      • 

combinations.  fti  tr '  b-  w- 


b,  w? 


(1)  b%  w>2 

Wb%w^ 

(Vblwf 

(2)  b%  wf 

(5)b^w^ 

(S)  biw^ 

(3)  6|  wf 

(6)b^w% 

(9)  b^w^ 

6.  Chart  Illustrating 
Mendel's  Law. — In  his  ex- 
periments, Mendel  crossed 
peas  of  two  kinds ;  one  kind 
tall,  and  of  robust  growth; 
the  other  dwarf,  and  of  more 
delicate  foliage.  His  first 
discovery  was  that  the 
qualities  of  tallness  and 
robustness  are  dominant 
over  the  quality  of  dwarf- 
ness.  This  was  shown  at 
the  first  crossing,  for  instead  of  getting  some  plants  of  each 
kind  and  some  intermediate  in  size  between  the  parents, 
the  entire  output  was  tall  and  robust.  This  result  created 
the  expectation  that  the  next  crop  would  be  tall  like  the  plants 
of  the  first  cross.  They  were  not  so,  however,  for  the  smaller, 
more  delicate  plants  reappeared  among  those  of  the  next  gen- 
eration, in  the  ratio  of  one  to  three  of  the  tall  plants.  Later, 
however,  he  discovered  that  some  of  the  tall  plants  were  pure 
dominant  {Dp),  and  would  produce  only  tall  plants  ever  after- 
wards. He  discovered  also  that  of  each  three  of  the  tall  plants, 
two  were  not  pure,  but  uncertain,  dominants  QDu) ;  for,  when 


70 


STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY 


§2 


IDp 


Du 


IJRp 


planted,  they  produced  Dp,  Du,  and  small  plants  (Rp)  in  the 
proportion,  respectively,  of  1,  2,  and  1.  Because  the  small 
plants  were  entirely  absent  from  the  product  of  the  first  cross, 
Mendel  called  the  quality  of  dwarfness  or  smallness  recessive. 
The  small  plants  reappeared,  however,  in  the  second  cross, 
and  always  afterwards  when  he  planted  the  imcertain  dom- 
inants (Du).  More- 
[nXjR)]  over,    they    had    rid 

themselves  of  the  in- 
fluence of  the  domi- 
nant plants,  for  they 
continued  to  come  true 
ever  afterwards,  with- 
out intermixture  or 
sign  of  the  dominant 
characters.  The  un- 
certain dominants 
(Du)  continued  indef- 
initely to  break  up  into 
1  Dp,  2  Du,  and  1  Rp. 
This  is  Mendel's  law, 
and  it  is  shown  exactly 
in  Fig.  7.  Mendel's 
experiments  covered 
many  other  charac- 
ters of  plants,  such 
as  the  color  of  their 
flowers,  the  size  and 
^P  shape  of  their  leaves, 
the  peculiarities  of 
their  seeds,  etc. 


I>u 


Du 


Dp  =  Dominant  pure 

Du  =  Dominant  uncertain 

JBp  =Bece88ive  pure 

Pig.  7 


Since  his  time,  the  question  whether  or  not  his  law  is  appli- 
cable also  in  the  breeding  of  animals  and  birds,  and  especially 
in  poultry  breeding,  has  led  to  considerable  experiment  and 
some  dispute.  The  weight  of  evidence  is  strongly  in  the 
affirmative,  though  results  are  not  so  easUy  and  quickly  obtain- 
able as  in  the  case  of  plants.  It  is  hoped,  however,  that  poultry 
fanciers  as  well  as  thremmatologists  in  general  will  abandon 


§2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  71 

more  and  more  the  haphazard  methods  now  followed,  and  will 
regulate  their  methods  in  accordance  with  the  orderly  pro- 
cedure of  science.  But  whatever  may  be  the  method  of  the 
poultry  breeder,  he  should  remember  that  the  chances  are 
always  in  favor  of  the  fowl  that  has  the  desired  points  of  excel- 
lence in  the  highest  degree  of  perfection.  The  faulty  and 
imperfect  should  be  rigorously  discarded,  because  only  the  best 
can  be  counted  on  to  produce  the  best. 


MENDELIAN  EXPERIMENTS 

7.  The  principles  of  Mendelism  have  been  sufficiently 
applied  to  poultry  to  indicate  that  a  close  adherence  to  them 
might  be  of  benefit  to  those  who  attempt  cross-breeding  in  the 
hope  of  establishing  a  new  breed  or  variety,  but  whether  it 
will  prove  to  be  of  value  in  the  handling  of  breeds  that  are 
.well  established  has  not  even  been  approached,  in  the  sense 
of  having  yielded  anything  of  value.  The  only  facts  that  have 
been  established  are  that  the  best  results  are  obtained  from 
fowls  that  are  known  producers,  and  that  such  individuals  must 
be  used  for  line  breeding.  For  many  years  this  has  been  well 
understood  by  breeders  of  experience. 

Professor  Bateson,  M.  A.,  F.  R.  S.,  of  Cambridge,  England, 
an  authority  on  Mendelism,  gives  the  following  opinion  in  a 
recent  publication:  "To  prevent  disappointments,  however, 
it  must  at  once  be  admitted  that  for  fanciers,  Mendelism  can 
do  but  little.  'Fancying'  provides  the  chief  interest  in  life  for 
thousands  of  persons  in  this  country.  It  is  an  occupation  with 
which  the  scientific  naturalist  should  have  more  sympathy  than 
he  has  commonly  evinced.  If  the  scientific  world  had  kept  in 
touch  with  the  operations  of  the  'fancy,'  much  nonsense  which 
has  passed  into  scientific  orthodoxy  would  never  have  been 
written.  The  study  of  Mendelian  phenomena  will  do  some- 
thing to  bring  about  a  fruitful  exchange  of  experience. 

"But  for  the  'fancy'  ouj:  work  can  as  yet  do  two  things  only: 
first,  in  the  study  of  the  workings  of  the  Mendelian  system  it 
will  provide  a  most  fascinating  pursuit,  which,  if  followed  with 


72  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  2 

assiduous  care,  may  at  any  moment  lead  to  some  considerable 
advance  in  scientific  knowledge;  secondly,  the  principles 
already  ascertained  will  be  found  of  practical  assistance  in 
the  formation  of  new  breeds,  and  may  save  many  mistakes 
and  waste  of  time.  But  applied  to  the  business  of  breeding 
winners  in  established  breeds,  they  cannot  materially  help, 
for  almost  always  the  points  that  tell  are  too  fine  to  be  dealt 
with  in  our  analysis." 

8.  In  the  official  report  of  1910,  the  Minister  of  Agricul- 
ture of  South  Australia  gives  a  report  of  experiments  made  by 
Punnett  as  follows : 

"The  White  Leghorn  breed  of  poiiltry  is  characterized  by  its 
piu-e  white  plimiage.  In  this  case,  white  plimiage  is  dominant 
to  colored,  but  the  dominance  is  not  quite  perfect.  When  a 
white  and  a  brown  Leghorn  are  crossed,  all  the  resulting 
offspring  are  white,  but  almost  invariably  they  have  a  few 
colored  feathers.  Such  birds  give  off  an  equal  number  of. 
gametes  bearing  the  white  and  colored  characters.  This  is 
easily  tested  by  breeding  them  together.  Breeders  have  long 
recognized  the  difficulty  of  obtaining  a  piure  strain  of  the 
Andalusian  variety.  No  matter  how  carefully  the  blues  are 
selected,  they  always  throw  wasters  of  two  sorts:  some  pure 
black  and  others  a  peculiar  white  with  black  splashes.  Care- 
ful breeding  shows  that  on  an  average  one-half  of  the  offspring 
of  a  pen  of  Andalusians  come  blue,  one-foiirth  black,  and  one- 
fourth  splashed  black  and  white.  These  proportions  at  once 
suggest  that  the  blues  are  heterozygotes :  for  we  have  already 
seen  that  the  breeding  of  heterozygotes  results  in  one-half 
of  the  total  offspring  coming  heterozygotes.  If  this  is  so,  it 
follows  that  the  blacks  and  splashed  whites  are  by  nattire 
homozygous,  and  consequently  ought  to  breed  true.  Experi- 
ment has  shown  that  such  is  actually  the  case.  Further,  we 
should  be  led  to  expect  heterozygous  offspring  from  a  union 
of  two  homozygotes.  Here  again  the  experimental  results 
accord  with  the  theory.  When  splashed  black  and  white  are 
bred  together  all  the  offspring  without  exception  are  blue. 
Paradoxical  as  it  may  soimd,  the  mating  of  the  black  and  white 


§2  '         STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  73 

wasters  gives  a  proportion  of  blue  Andalusians  twice  as  great 
as  the  mating  of  blue  with  blue.  The  black  and  the  white 
splashed  are  really  the  pure  breeds.  The  piu-e  blue  Andalusian 
is,  and  from  its  nature  must  be,  a  mongrel.  The  fact  is  shown 
by  the  chart : 

Blue  X  Blue 


, ' , 1 

Blue        X         Blue        Black  and  White  SplasMA 

-1 1 ' 1 r      I 

Black  Blue  Blue  Black  ana  White 

Splashed      [ 
Black  and  White  Splashed 

I 
Blue 

"This  has  long  been  known  to  most  breeders  as  really  the 
reason  why  Andalusians  lack  popularity.  You  cannot  con- 
vince novices  that  blue  is  a  hybrid  color,  a  midway  between 
black  and  white.  Breeders  have  many  times  shown  me  let- 
ters fiill  of  abuse  about  the  color  of  chicks  resulting  from  the 
mating  of  first-class  show  Andalusians.  To  offer  to  sell  a 
novice  a  pen  of  black  and  splashed  birds  as  breeders  would, 
of  course,  lead  to  trouble.  In  crossing  a  White  Leghorn  cock 
with  a  Black  Orpington  hen,  the  white  of  the  Leghorn  is  dom- 
inant if  the  white  male  bird  be  used :  but  it  is  not  so  if  the  sexes 
be  reversed.  Many  persons  think  that  because  all  the  chickens 
come  white  they  will  stay  white  when  bred  together,  but  that 
is  not  so.  F  2  will  show  white,  and  black  and  white,  and  black. 
Pure  blacks  will  breed  black;  impure  blacks  will  breed  black 
and  white.  This  latter  may  appear  to  be  up  in  the  air,  but 
it  has  its  practical  application.  Crossing  a  White  Leghorn 
cock  with  a  Black  Orpington  hen  has  already  practical  value 
in  South  Australia;  they  are  oiir  two  standard  breeds.  Some 
persons  like  to  keep  both  the  light  and  the  heavy  breed.  The 
progeny  of  this  cross  are  white  plumaged  and  have  white  legs, 
as  demanded  for  export  to  England.  I  have  a  letter  from 
Professor  Bateson  of  the  Cambridge  University  in  which  he 
says  that  the  experiments  I  carried  out  the  year  before  last 
at  Roseworthy  were  most  interesting.  'It  is  rather  surpris- 
ing,' he  says,  'that  these  results— referring  to  a  Black  Orping- 


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§2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  77 

ton  cock  and  a  White  Leghorn  hen — should  differ  so  mate- 
rially from  that  of  the  reciprocal  mating.  Perhaps  some 
individual  peculiarity  of  the  parent  was  the  cause.  I  should 
be  glad  to  hear  results  of  the  repetition  of  that  experiment.' 

"I  have  repeated  these  experiments.  We  had  two  or  three 
pens  of  reciprocal  matings  and  used  exactly  the  same  blood, 
with  the  result  that  the  White  Leghorn  cock  and  Black  Orping- 
ton hens  produced  all  chickens  with  white  plumage  and  white 
legs.  In  the  case  of  the  Black  Orpington  cock  and  the  White 
Leghorn  hen,  some  of  the  progeny  were  black:  all  had  more 
or  less  black  in  plimiage,  and  all  had  black  legs.  The  great 
point  about  Mendel's  law  is  the  recognition  of  the  unit  char- 
acter— that  is,  the  purity  of  the  germ  cell.  If  new  blood  is 
introduced,  the  inevitable  result  will  be  reversion  and  a  mani- 
festation of  the  true  import  of  Mendel's  law  of  segregation." 


DOMINANT  AND  RECESSIVE  CHARACTERS 

9.  The  greatest  influence,  according  to  Mendel's  law, 
comes  from  the  dominant  character,  but  without  the  recessive 
agent  the  consummation  of  the  purpose  intended  cannot  be 
accomplished.  When  a  fuller  realization  of  the  meaning  of 
this  law  has  been  reached,  a  more  definite  application  can  be 
made.  By  permission  of  the  publishers  of  "The  Poultry 
Manual,"  written  by  the  Rev.  T.  W.  vSturges,  M.  A.,  of  Eng- 
land, a  list  of  dominant  and  recessive  characters  in  poultry 
as  compiled  by  the  author  is  given  in  Table  I.  The  author 
states  that  the  list  has  been  gathered  from  various  sources 
and  that  the  data  are  not  given  as  decisive  and  certain  but 
that  they  are  the  resiilts  of  careful  experiments  and  are  likely 
to  be  useful  for  future  guidance. 


78  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §2 


MODERN  METHODS  OF  PRODUCING 
EXHIBITION  POULTRY 


rNTLUENCES  AFFECTING  OFFSPRING 

10.  Influence  of  Original  Breeds. — The  original  fowls 
from  which  modem  breeds  have  descended  need  be  considered 
only  in  mating  poultry  for  best  results,  as  a  guard  against 
undesirable  qualities  they  may  have  had.  Chance  matings 
cannot  give  any  hope  of  success.  Only  careful  matings  should 
be  practiced.  Due  consideration  should  be  given  to  every 
influence  that  will  affect  the  offspring  from  the  matings. 
The  original  breeds  from  which  all  poultry  has  come  have  been 
so  improved  as  virtually  to  change  them  into  new  breeds. 
Not  all  defects,  however,  have  been  removed  from  the  blood 
lines  which  descended  from  them.  More  of  these  faults  occur 
in  breeds  that  have  been  formed  by  intermingling  several  of 
them.  For  this  reason  more  dangerous  influences  will  be 
fovmd  in  new  breeds  than  were  possessed  by  the  originals. 

The  multiplication  of  varieties  in  each  breed  has  increased 
influences  that  may  become  detrimental.  In  making  new 
breeds  and  their  subvarieties  more  different  kinds  have  usually 
been  brought  together  than  would  have  been  the  case  if  careful 
study  had  been  given  in  advance  to  their  creation.  A  refer- 
ence to  the  history  of  the  origin  of  the  Coltimbian  Wyandotte 
will  expose  the  underlying  dangers,  which  are  apt  to  show  their 
supremacy  at  a  time  when  least  expected.  Better  results  might 
have  been  more  quickly  obtained  if  other  lines  had  been  fol- 
lowed. Among  the  strains  that  have  been  established  by  more 
simple  methods  are  frequently  found  individuals  of  surprising 
qualities.  These,  when  mated  with  fowls  of  another  strain,  may 
prove  to  be  disappointing.  Their  introduction  may  improve 
some  qualities,  but  their  good  influences  are  apt  to  be  destroyed 
by  the  bad  influences  hidden  away  because  of  a  faulty  beginning. 


§  2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  79 

11.  Influence  of  Sex. — Some  cockerels  resemble  their 
male  parents  and  some  piillets  resemble  their  female  parents. 
This  is  accepted  as  proof  that  influence  descends  from  the  male 
parent  directly  to  the  male  offspring  and  that  the  female  is 
dominant  with  the  pullets.  This  is  called  the  influence  of  sex, 
and  it  is  mentioned  frequently  when  it  occurs.  No  mention, 
however,  is  made  of  the  thousands  of  fowls  that  do  not  resem- 
ble their  parents.  That  influence  of  sex  does  exist  is  freely 
admitted,  but  that  it  exists  to  an  extent  that  will  control  the 
form  and  color  of  all  offspring  cannot  be  proved.  When  a  few 
instances  of  atavistic  reversion  occur,  loud  mention  is  made 
of  them;  nothing  is  said,  however,  of  the  thousands  of  instances 
when  it  does  not  occur.  Influence  of  sex  may  be  extended 
by  selection;  whenever  parents  stamp  their  own  resemblance 
on  any  number  of  their  offspring,  it  is  frequently  from  breed- 
ing in  line  or  from  inbreeding,  and  not  the  influence  of  sex. 

Because  a  few  fowls  are  so  like  their  ancestors  as  to  attract 
attention  is  no  reason  for  believing  that  markings  of  plu- 
mage can  be  controlled  through  the  influence  of  sex.  Form, 
color,  and  markings  are  established  by  careful  mating  of  fowls 
with  the  reproducing  qualities  needed  to  produce  the  form 
and  color  desired.  Influence  of  sex  will  show  from  such  matings, 
but  such  influence  will  not  control.  To  establish  sex  influence 
will  require  more  delicate  handling  than  is  possible  in  breed- 
ing potiltry.  The  imcertainties  that  are  always  present  render 
asstired  results  impossible.  The  one  safeguard  against  con- 
tamination when  such  trials  are  made  is  separation  with- 
out possibility  of  interference.  Claims  cannot  be  accepted 
when  the  results  must  depend  upon  eggs  produced  by  hens 
that  have  not  had  their  freedom  restricted. 

12.  Influence  of  the  Male. — That  the  male  has  more  or 
less  influence  over  the  offspring  must  be  admitted,  but  just 
how  far  that  influence  extends  must  continue  to  be  uncertain 
imtil  more  definite  information  can  be  gathered.  The  mere 
fact  that  a  line  of  cockerels  resembles  the  male  ancestors  does 
not  prove  that  this  likeness  is  the  result  of  male  influence. 
Hamburg  cockerels  resemble  Hamburg  males  just  as  Hamburg 


80  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §2 

ptdlets  have  a  likeness  to  Hamburg  females;  but  that  all  pul- 
lets or  all  cockerels  of  this  breed  have  likeness  to  a  particular 
ancestor  can  scarcely  be  proved.  Although  these  have  been, 
perhaps,  more  carefully  bred  than  other  kinds,  their  offspring 
may  differ  materially  from  one  another.  The  same  is  true  in 
all  breeds  and  varieties.  There  are  but  few  strains  so  well 
established  as  to  produce  each  season  even  a  few  cockerels 
and  pullets  that  inherit  so  striking  an  ancestral  resemblance 
as  to  make  possible  their  selection  with  any  certainty  of  results. 
Theory  or  belief  frequently  leads  to  conclusions  that  cannot 
be  substantiated. 

13.  Influence  of  the  Female. — There  is  more  evidence 
of  parental  influence  through  the  female  than  the  male.  From 
producing  hens,  strains  have  been  established  even  when 
males  of  only  medium  quality  have  been  used.  Failures  have 
been  frequent  from  using  the  highest  grade  of  males  with  females 
of  mediimi  quality.  Seldom,  if  ever,  have  satisfactory  results 
come  from  mating  males  of  the  highest  grade  with  females  of 
indifferent  quality.  In  many  instances  good  results  have  been 
obtained  from  females  mated  with  males  of  indifferent  quality. 
Such  results  have  occurred  frequently  enough  to  have  estab- 
lished the  belief  that  greater  parental  influence  comes  through 
the  female  than  through  the  male.  Such  influence  can  be 
traced  through  every  line  of  breeding,  and  in  each  kind  of 
domestic  animal  this  influence  can  be  seen.  The  best  restilts 
are  never  obtained  from  females  of  inferior  quality,  but  mar- 
velous resiilts  may  come  through  the  use  of  the  highest  grade 
of  females,  even  though  the  male  line  is  not  of  the  most  desirable 
kind. 

A  producing  female  should  be  highly  prized.  A  few  desir- 
able females  will,  if  properly  mated,  produce  more  offspring 
with  desirable  qualities  than  will  come  from  the  use  of  a  hun- 
dred hens  of  a  poor  quality,  although  of  the  same  variety. 
This  may  occur  even  though  the  males  mated  with  the  inferior 
females  are  of  a  better  quality  than  those  mated  with  the  bet- 
ter hens.  It  is  certain  to  occur  if  all  the  males  are  of  a  superior 
quality,  provided  the  lines  of  breeding  are  not  antagonistic. 


§  2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  (81 

Such  comparisons  are  made  for  the  purpose  of  emphasizing 
the  absolute  necessity  of  having  hens  of  superior  quahty  from 
which  to  produce  the  finest  exhibition  fowls. 

14.  Influence  of  Previous  Matings. — There  is  a  behef 
more  or  less  prevalent  that  the  first  male  mate  of  a  hen  con- 
tinues to  influence  her  offspring  even  after  it  has  been  sup- 
planted by  another  male.  The  potency  of  the  immediate  sire 
of  any  given  brood  is  of  course  conceded  to  be  greater  than 
that  of  any  or  all  preceding  mates  of  the  mother;  nevertheless, 
certain  theorists  contend  that  the  male  influence  is  persistent, 
and  that  each  later  chick  is  indebted  in  some  measure  to  the 
earlier  mates  of  the  mother  hen.  They  insist  that  the  rudi- 
mentary ova  are  modified  or  influenced  in  some  inexplicable 
way  by  the  first  mating.  They  believe,  too,  that  this  per- 
sistence of  male  potency  obtains  not  only  with  birds  but  with 
the  mammals  also,  including  man. 

A  careful  investigation  of  this  subject  has  proved  that  the 
theory  has  no  basis  whatever  in  fact. 


METHODS  OF  BREEDING 


LINE    BREEDING 

15o  Line  breeding  consists  in  mating  fowls  in  a  direct 
line  from  certain  ancestors  in  a  manner  that  will  improve  in 
the  offspring  all  the  desirable  qualities  of  the  parents  and 
will  establish  the  most  desirable  traits.  When  line  breeding 
has  been  successfully  applied,  it  may  be  continued  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  without  the  introduction  of  new  blood  into  a  flock. 
To  accomplish  this,  care  must  be  continually  given  to  the 
selecting  of  the  healthiest  individuals  from  among  the  best 
of  the  offspring.  Strength  and  vitality  must  be  maintained, 
even  though  all  the  chicks  are  hatched  and  reared  in  the 
natural  way. 

To  obtain  the  best  results  from  this  manner  of  breeding, 
fowls  of  superior  qualities  must  be  selected  as  the  foundation 
stock.     Three  or  four  females  and  a  male  may  be  selected 


82  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  2 

as  a  beginning.  The  chicks  from  each  hen  must  be  toe-marked 
for  identification,  the  toe  markings  to  be  continued  as  the 
identification  mark  of  the  blood  lines  that  descend  from  each 
female.  If  the  chicks  hatched  the  first  year  from  each  hen 
are  all  satisfactory,  from  the  fact  that  they  are  an  improve- 
ment on  the  original,  the  first  year's  breeding  has  been  suc- 
cessful. If  the  chicks  from  one  or  more  hens  are  superior  to 
aU  the  rest,  they  with  their  chicks  should  be  retained;  the 
inferior  chicks  and  their  mothers  should  be  discarded. 

To  avoid  loss  of  vitality,  only  matiu-e  hens  should  be  used 
in  the  breeding  pen.  Hens  in  their  second  or  third  year 
of  laying  will,  if  vigorous,  produce  chicks  with  health  and 
vitality.  Pullets  are  less  likely  than  hens  to  produce  vigor- 
ous chicks.  To  continue  the  process,  hens  in  their  second  or 
third  year  should  be  mated  with  the  best  cockerels,  each 
mating  being  headed  with  a  cockerel  that  comes  from  one 
Une,  the  pullets  being  selected  from  the  lines  that  have 
descended  from  hens  other  than  the  ancestor  of  the  cockerel. 
All  the  several  qualifications  of  size,  shape,  and  color  must  be 
established  to  the  fullest  extent,  for  in  no  other  way  will  the 
blood  lines  established  prove  to  be  of  value;  and  these  lines 
must  be  kept  separate  from  each  hen  and  from  each  male  fowl 
as  well,  when  more  than  one  has  been  made  use  of  in  breeding 
them.  

INBREEDING 

16.  Inbreeding  is  the  mating  together  of  closely  related 
fowls,  year  after  year,  in  direct  line,  from  a  few  original  fowls. 
This  differs  materially  from  line  breeding,  from  the  fact  that 
the  best  fowls  resulting  each  year  from  such  matings  are  again 
mated  and  remated  even  to  the  extent  of  pairing  brothers 
and  sisters  in  an  effort  to  establish  certain  desirable  qualities. 
This  practice  is  frequently  kept  up  indefinitely  in  the  hope  of 
establishing  better  color.  Shape  may  be  improved  in  this 
way;  rarely,  however,  is  such  the  case.  Loss  of  size  and  deteri- 
oration of  shape  are  misfortimes  that  usually  follow  inbreeding. 
Vitality  wiU  often  become  less  vigorous  in  flocks  where  inbreed- 
ing is  practiced. 


§  2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  83 

Such  undesirable  consequences  may  be  avoided  by  the 
method  of  selection  and  through  the  practice  of  migration. 
To  gain  the  best  results  from  the  practice  of  inbreeding,  eggs 
from  mature  hens  only  shoiild  be  hatched,  and  only  the  most 
vigorous  of  all  should  be  selected  for  this  purpose.  No  fowl, 
either  male  or  female,  lacking  in  vigor  should  be  bred  from. 
This  must  be  rigidly  observed  or  vitality  will  quickly  wane. 
Migration  consists  in  sending  pullets  a  distance  away  where 
they  may  have  the  advantage  of  a  change  of  climate  and  soil. 
The  pullets  may  be  returned  as  yearling  hens  and  used  as 
producers.  Cockerels  also  may  be  sent  into  a  locality  entirely 
different — one  where  a  limestone  soil  prevails  will  be  of  the 
greatest  advantage.  To  illustrate :  a  strain  of  fowls  was  orig- 
inated and  constantly  kept  where  there  was  a  clay  soil.  Pul- 
lets and  cockerels  of  this  strain  were  sent  away  each  year 
more  than  two  hundred  miles.  There  they  roamed  at  free- 
dom over  fields  and  woodlands  where  a  gravelly,  limestone 
subsoil  prevailed.  The  hens  were  brought  back  and  used 
when  2  or  3  years  old  for  producing  the  eggs  for  hatching. 
Some  were  mated  to  cockerels  of  the  year  before ;  some  to  those 
that  had  been  sent  away  and  returned.  Some  of  the  cockerels 
that  had  been  sent  away  returned  as  yearlings  and  were  used 
both  with  hens  that  had  been  in  migration  and  with  hens 
bred  at  home.  This  practice  was  followed  during  a  period  of 
7  years,  no  new  blood  whatever  being  introduced  into  the  flock. 
Size,  shape,  and  color  were  all  improved  and  there  was  no 
evidence  of  failing  vitality.  Birds  from  this  flock  won  prizes 
east,  west,  north,  and  south;  they  were  sent  into  Mexico  and 
Australia,  and  in  both  countries  their  excellence  was  recog- 
nized. It  was  not  imusual  for  every  egg  of  a  dozen  or  fifteen 
placed  imder  a  hen  to  yield  a  strong,  vigorous  chick.  Later, 
when  new  blood  was  introduced,  it  was  brought  into  the  flock 
by  a  cockerel  and  pullet  specially  selected  for  the  purpose. 

To  be  successful  in  inbreeding,  perfect  records  of  the  blood 
lines  must  be  kept.  A  most  complete  system  of  marking  must 
be  followed;  the  toe  punch  must  be  used  constantly;  every 
chick  that  is  hatched  must  be  so  marked  as  to  be  identified 
without  doubt  as  to  both  of  its  parents.     The  hen  and  the 


84  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §2 

cock  of  the  mating  must  be  recognized  with  certainty  by  their 
toe  marks.  To  increase  the  certainty  of  recognition,  in  addi- 
tion to  toe  markings,  sealed  leg  bands  may  be  used;  when 
identified  in  this  way,  the  greatest  possible  distance  in  relation- 
ship may  be  assured.  Weaklings  and  those  that  produce  them 
may  be  traced  in  this  way,  as  may  also  deformities  of  body. 
The  practice  of  establishing  first  the  color  and  markings  and 
afterwards  the  size  and  form,  usually  results  in  the  loss  of  the 
latter,  and  when  the  attempt  has  been  made  to  regain  these 
desirable  features,  color  is  lost.  The  only  safe  method  to  fol- 
low is  that  which  is  carefully  directed  toward  the  retention, 
at  least,  if  not  the  improvement,  of  all  three  qualities.  The 
practice  of  placing  too  much  emphasis  on  beautiful  color  of 
fowls  that  lack  size  and  breed  characters  has  encouraged  the 
plan  of  working  for  color.  The  best  nile  is  to  endeavor  to 
secure  the  most  nearly  perfect  size,  shape,  color,  and  markings 
all  combined. 

To  influence  color  and  markings,  fowls  possessing  these  to  a 
marked  degree  should  be  selected  for  the  mating.  If  size, 
shape,  and  perfect  colors  are  possessed  by  individual  fowls, 
advancement  will  be  made  more  quickly  than  by  the  use  of 
fowls  lacking  in  any  of  these  desirable  qualities.  Yet,  one 
cannot  always  be  so  fortunate  as  this,  and  when  color  is  most 
desired,  size  and  shape  may  be  sacrificed  to  a  limited  extent; 
when  size  and  shape  are  the  features  demanded,  color  may  in 
a  measure  be  neglected.  No  matter  how  well  the  fowls  may  be 
selected,  size,  shape,  and  vigor  are  apt  to  dwindle  in  the  order 
mentioned. 

To  overcome  these  dangers,  new  blood  may  be  gradually 
fed  into  the  blood  line  of  the  fowls  used  for  inbreeding.  To 
do  this,  a  vigorous  hen  of  large  size,  perfect  type,  and  of  as 
good  color  and  markings  as  possible  should  be  chosen ;  this  hen 
should  be  mated  to  the  best  cockerel  produced  from  the  inbred 
stock  of  the  year  before.  If  the  offspring  resulting  from  this 
mating  are  desirable,  the  same  hen  should  be  used  another 
year  and  be  mated  to  the  best  cockerel  that  was  bred  the  year 
before  from  the  inbred  stock.  The  best  pullets  bred  from  this 
hen  should  be  mated  to  their  own  sire.     If  the  ofifspring  from 


§2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  85 

this  mating  are  what  they  should  be,  the  best  of  them  may  be 
mated  as  new  blood  into  the  line  of  inbred  stock.  No  attempt 
should  be  made  to  use  the  new  blood  until  the  second  gen- 
eration has  proved  successful;  and  the  second  or  subsequent 
generations  only  should  be  used.  This  same  process  may  be 
repeated  year  after  year,  the  result  of  which  will  be  cockerels, 
which  may  be  mated  each  year  to  one  or  two  of  the  best  hens 
of  the  inbred  stock.  Hens  in  their  second  year  from  the  same 
blood  may  be  mated  to  the  best  cockerels  of  the  inbred  line. 
The  foundation  stock  must  be  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible 
in  size,  shape,  and  color.  Fowls  for  foundation  stock  should 
be  chosen  from  flocks  that  possess  the  desirable  qualities  hoped 
for,  and  they  must  be  perfect  so  far  as  can  be  determined. 
This  is  necessary  from  the  fact  that  in  future  generations 
imperfections  may  spring  up  which  did  not  make  their  appear- 
ance in  the  first  cross.  If  undesirable  featiu^es  make  their 
appearance  in  the  first  cross,  new  hens  should  be  selected 
and  the  ones  used  the  previous  year  should  be  mated  to  another 
cockerel  to  prove  whether  the  dangerous  features  came  from 
the  hen  or  whether  they  were  brought  to  the  surface  by  the 
union  of  the  two.  If  they  came  entirely  from  the  hen,  they 
will  reappear  later;  if  they  were  due  to  both  parents,  they  are 
apt  to  occur  again.  If  they  do  not  make  their  appearance  in 
the  result  of  the  second  mating,  this  fact  may  be  accepted  as 
satisfactory  evidence  that  the  fault  was  in  the  first  male  selected. 
No  chance  work  may  be  permitted  in  selecting  fowls  for  this 
purpose,  and,  in  addition  to  this,  unusual  care  must  be  given 
to  the  keeping  of  records  and  the  intermingling  of  blood  lines, 
to  avoid  dangers  that  are  apt  to  follow. 


STRAIN    BREEDING 

17.  A  strain,  as  defined  by  the  American  Poultry  Asso- 
ciation, is:  "A  family  of  any  variety  of  fowls  bred  in  line 
by  descent  by  one  fancier,  or  a  successor,  during  a  number  of 
years,  that  has  acquired  individual  characteristics  which  dis- 
tinguish it  more  or  less  from  other  strains  or  specimens  of  the 
same  vajiety."     This   plainly  indicates   that   a   strain  must 


86  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §2 

descend  in  line  from  individuals  that  are  able  to  transmit 
their  characters  through  a  series  of  generations,  and  it  can  be 
plainly  seen  that  a  strain  of  fowls  cannot  be  established  in  a 
few  years.  Even  when  the  third  or  fourth  generation  from 
the  original  ancestors  has  been  reached  a  strain  has  not  neces- 
sarily been  established.  Although  line  breeding  may  have 
been  practiced  to  this  extent,  unless  qualities  have  been  estab- 
lished that  assure  the  recurrence  of  better  and  better  offspring 
each  year,  a  strain  will  not  even  have  been  started,  much  less 
established. 

It  is  thus  evident  that  a  valuable  strain  cannot  be  produced 
at  aU  except  by  the  most  careful  selection  of  the  fotmdation 
stock,  and  the  most  sldlful  mating  in  later  generations,  so  that 
the  stock  will  continue  to  improve  each  year  to  such  an  extent 
as  to  establish  a  strong  family  resemblance  in  the  offspring. 
Chance  breeding  cannot  be  relied  on  to  produce  satisfactory 
results,  and  it  should  be  realized  that  there  is  a  great  difference 
between  a  man  trained  to  raise  poultry  commercially  and  a 
man  skilled  in  the  art  of  mating  fowls  to  produce  exceptionally 
good  results  for  exhibition. 

In  introducing  new  blood  into  a  strain,  it  should  always 
be  borne  in  mind  that  exceptionally  beautiful  prize-winning 
fowls  are  not  always  the  best  to  use  for  this  purpose.  It  often 
occurs  that  a  prize  winner  may  be  said  to  belong  to  a  certain 
strain  because  it  is  beautiful  or  because  it  may  greatly  resemble 
the  fowls  in  the  strain.  Such  statements  are  misleading. 
The  careless  introduction  of  such  a  fowl  into  a  strain  might 
prove  injurious. 

18.     Selection  of  Foundation  Stock  for  a  Strain. — The 

most  important  requirement  in  the  establishment  of  a  strain 
is  to  maintain  the  true  breed  formation,  and  before  a  poultry- 
man  attempts  to  select  the  fotmdation  stock  for  a  strain,  he 
should  have  a  perfect  conception  of  what  the  true  breed  for- 
mation is.  Although  there  is  a  distinctive  formation  for  each 
breed,  and  each  variety  is  supposed  to  have  the  same  form, 
it  is  seldom  that  this  is  the  case.  To  convince  himself  of  this 
fact,  a  poultryman  has  only  to  examine  a  large  number  of  prize- 


§2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  87 

winning  fowls  of  a  single  variety,  and  he  will  see  that  numerous 
types  are  present.  This  state  of  affairs  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
each  breeder  has  drawn  his  own  conclusions  as  to  what  is  the 
proper  form  for  the  variety,  and  has  produced  fowls  that  con- 
form as  nearly  as  possible  to  his  ideal.  If  all  or  a  number  of 
these  types  had  been  produced  by  one  person  it  would  prove 
either  that  he  did  not  understand  the  true  type  of  the  breed 
or  that  he  had  bred  a  number  of  types  in  the  hope  of  winning 
the  approval  of  a  large  mmiber  of  people. 

This  great  variation  in  type  makes  it  necessary  to  select 
a  type  that  both  suits  the  fancy  of  the  person  who  is  to  breed 
the  strain  and  comes  as  near  as  possible  to  his  idea  of  Stand- 
ard requirements.  Without  such  a  conception  a  person  will 
scarcely  be  competent  to  select  the  proper  foimdation  stock  for 
a  strain. 

In  choosing  both  the  male  and  the  female  to  start  a  strain, 
special  attention  shoiild  be  given  to  the  head,  comb,  wattles, 
and  ear  lobes.  These  should  be  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
poultryman's  ideal  of  perfection.  No  fowls  that  have  any 
defective  features  of  the  head  or  comb  should  ever  be  admitted 
to  a  strain,  for  the  reason  that  as  more  or  less  inbreeding  must 
be  followed,  these  defects  will  become  exaggerated  in  futtu-e 
generations.  A  slight  imperfection  in  the  comb  of  a  female 
is  likely  to  be  exaggerated  in  the  combs  of  the  cockerels  she 
will  produce.  Small,  low-set  combs  of  perfect  form  and  with 
beautiful  serrations  are  always  the  best.  Uneven  serrations 
or  a  lumpy  enlargement  at  the  heel  of  the  comb  in  either  parent 
will  probably  be  followed  by  the  much  despised  feature  of  side 
sprigs  in  the  offspring. 

Of  the  two  parents,  the  female  is  the  important  one  to  have 
as  nearly  perfect  as  possible.  The  male  will  influence  the  off- 
spring largely  in  head  points,  color,  and  finish,  but  size  and 
breed  characters  are  influenced  more  perhaps  by  the  female 
than  by  the  male.  No  matter  how  nearly  perfect  a  male  may 
be,  if  mated  with  a  female  of  inferior  quality,  poor  results  will 
be  obtained.  A  female  of  the  highest  character  will  produce 
better  offspring  when  mated  to  a  male  lacking  in  breed  charac- 
ters than  an  inferior  fernale  mated  to  a  male  of  the  highest 


88  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  2 

character.  The  same  principle  holds  true  in  breeding  livestock 
of  all  kinds,  and  in  all  forms  of  plant  life  by  regarding  the 
female  as  the  analogue  of  the  soil.  However  perfect  a  seed  of 
any  kind  may  be,  it  will  yield  inferior  results  if  planted  in 
poor  soil;  inferior  seed  of  the  same  variet}'-  planted  in  rich, 
fertile  soil  is  apt  to  yield  surprising  results. 

Too  much  stress  cannot  be  placed  on  the  value  of  selecting 
the  proper  females.  Game  fanciers  in  all  ages  have  appre- 
ciated the  value  of  the  producing  hen,  and  although  it  has 
always  been  possible  to  piu-chase  large  numbers  of  males  from 
game  fanciers,  seldom,  if  ever,  has  it  been  possible  to  get  pro- 
ducing hens  of  the  highest  quality  out  of  the  yards  of  those  who 
breed  the  piirest  blooded  and  the  best  type  of  game  fowls. 
A  producing  hen,  from  the  standpoint  of  the  game  fancier, 
is  not  one  that  lays  a  large  number  of  eggs,  but  one  that  has 
the  power  to  transmit  sterling  qualities  to  her  offspring  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  give  them  the  power  to  transmit  these  quaHties 
to  their  offspring.  A  first-class  producing  hen  should  be  cap- 
able of  producing  both  cockerels  and  pullets  of  high-grade 
exhibition  quality.  Many  hens  of  the  highest  quality  fail  to 
produce  any  considerable  nimiber  of  exhibition  fowls.  Others 
will  produce  better  cockerels  than  ptillets,  and  some  will  pro- 
duce better  pullets  than  cockerels.  A  line  of  producers  has 
not  been  established  imtil  the  offspring  of  the  second  genera- 
tion, both  males  and  females,  are  found  to  be  better  than  their 
grandparents.  Such  a  strain  will  be  valuable  if  it  can  be  held 
together  without  loss  of  vitality,  form,  or  color.  The  ability 
to  do  this  is  the  fancier's  art,  for  excellence  cannot  be  pro- 
duced consistently  by  chance,  nor  can  it  be  perpetuated  if 
careless  methods  are  practiced.  One  old-time  fancier,  now 
dead,  who  produced  himdreds  of  the  choicest  exhibition  fowls, 
accomplished  his  results  by  the  most  carefiil  selection.  Speak- 
ing of  his  methods  he  said:  "The  family  in  this  yard  has 
produced,  without  change,  for  many  years.  When  the  sire 
is  gone,  he  is  replaced  by  one  of  his  own  best  sons;  if  a  hen 
fails  me,  her  place  is  filled  by  one  of  her  own  best  daughters." 
He  thus  bred  and  improved  this  one  strain  for  more  than  a 
quarter   of   a   century  without  introducing   any  new  blood. 


§  2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  89 

A  complete  record  of  each  male  and  female  was  kept,  the  eggs 
from^  each  hen  were  hatched  separately,  the  chicks  were  toe- 
marked  and  leg-banded  to  preserve  their  identity  as  long  as 
they  existed,  and  all  of  the  chicks  were  raised  by  hens. 

19.  General  Plan  of  Mating  Fowls  in  Strain  Breed- 
ing.— The  first  mating  for  the  purpose  of  establishing  a  strain 
should  be  made  with  the  greatest  care.  One  or  more  males, 
as  may  be  needed,  should  be  selected  for  their  individual  excel- 
lence from  a  strain  the  fowls  of  which  have  been  known  to 
breed  well  for  a  number  of  years.  Two  or  three  females  should 
be  selected  for  mating  with  each  male.  These  females  should 
have  the  same  desirable  qualities  as  the  males.  Hens  in  their 
second  year  of  laying  that  are  known  to  have  produced  good 
offspring  as  pullets  will  be  the  best,  if  they  can  be  secured. 
If  two  or  more  pens  are  started,  each  pen  should  include  one 
male  and  two  or  three  females.  An  equal  number  of  fowls 
should  be  placed  in  each  pen. 

The  hens  selected  should  have  the  fewest  possible  imper- 
fections in  size,  form,  and  color,  and  no  effort  should  be  made 
to  overcome  an  imperfection  in  one  fowl  by  an  extraordinary 
development  of  the  same  quality  in  the  other.  A  hen  with  a 
bad  comb,  for  instance,  mated  to  a  male  with  a  perfect  comb 
is  not  apt  to  produce  cockerels  with  desirable  combs.  A  back 
that  is  too  short  may  sometimes  be  lengthened  out  slightly 
in  the  offspring  by  mating  such  a  female  with  a  male  having 
'a  long  back,  though  there  is  no  certainty  that  perfection  in 
this  respect  will  be  obtained  by  such  mating.  Deficiencies 
of  breast  in  the  male  may  be  improved  in  the  offspring  by 
mating  such  males  with  hens  with  well-developed  breasts, 
but,  on  the  other  hand,  offspring  from  hens  lacking  in  breast 
and  body  formation  are  not  apt  to  have  these  qualities  in  any 
degree  of  perfection,  even  though  the  male  be  perfect.  To 
insure  success,  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  nearest  possible 
approach  to  perfection  in  all  respects  in  both  parents.  It  is 
not  worth  the  time  and  the  expense  to  try  to  overcome  a  defect 
in  one  parent  by  having  the  corresponding  quality  more  nearly 
perfect  in  the  other. 


90  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  2 

The  eggs  from  each  hen  must  be  hatched  separately,  and 
the  chicks  marked  for  future  identification.  When  all  the 
offspring  have  matured,  those  from  each  hen  should  be  kept 
until  they  are  of  good  size,  and  the  quality  of  both  males  and 
females  carefully  examined  and  considered.  If  it  is  found  that 
one  or  more  of  the  original  hens  have  produced  but  few  good 
offspring,  they  may  be  considered  undesirable,  even  though 
some  of  them  may  have  produced  either  excellent  cockerels 
or  excellent  pullets,  as  stated  before.  If  some  of  the  original 
hens  have  produced  a  considerable  nimiber  of  desirable  off- 
spring of  both  sexes,  these  hens  with  their  offspring  should 
be  selected  for  building  up  the  strain.  If  thought  advisable, 
the  hens  that  did  not  produce  satisfactory  offspring  may  be 
mated  with  males  of  a  different  strain,  and  the  same  method  of 
judging  the  offspring  applied;  if  no  better  results  are  obtained 
from  these  hens  in  this  second  mating,  they  and  all  their 
offspring  should  be  discarded.  If  any  of  these  hens  show  good 
results  in  this  second  mating,  they  may  be  bred  from  further, 
though  all  their  offspring  should  be  kept  apart  from  the  others 
and  carefully  watched  to  see  that  they  continue  to  be  of  good 
quality. 

In  order  to  secure  the  best  results  in  strain  breeding,  offspring 
of  desirable  quality  should  be  obtained  from  two  or  more  hens. 
After  this  has  been  done,  these  offsprings  should  be  crossed; 
that  is,  males  from  hen  No.  1  shotild  be  mated  to  females  from 
hen  No.  2,  and  the  females  from  hen  No.  1  to  the  males  from 
hen  No.  2.  The  cocks  that  have  been  successful  in  producing 
good  offspring  in  these  matings  should  be  mated  to  their  own 
best  daughters,  and  the  hens  should  be  mated  to  their  own  best 
cockerel.  Cockerels  of  the  present  year  should  be  mated 
with  hens  that  are  more  than  a  year  old — almost  2  years 
old  would  be  better.  This  system  should  be  followed  to 
improve  the  stamina  of  the  strain,  and  it  will  be  successful, 
provided  that  only  fowls  of  abimdant  vitality  are  used  for 
breeding  purposes. 

20.     Introduction  of  New  Blood  Into  a  Strain. — The 

introduction  of  new  blood  into  an  established  strain  must  be 


§  2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  91 

done  with  caution.  The  first  step  in  doing  this  is  to  select  a 
2-year-old  hen  of  the  highest  character  outside  of  the  strain, 
and  to  mate  her  with  one  of  the  best  cockerels  of  the  strain. 
If  the  offspring  from  this  mating  are  satisfactory,  one  or  two 
of  the  pullets  thus  produced  and  the  parent  hen  should  be 
mated  to  the  original  male,  and  one  of  the  best  cockerels  from 
this  mating  should  be  mated  with  one  of  the  best  hens  of  the 
strain  in  her  second  year  of  laying.  If  the  offspring  from  the 
pullets  mated  to  their  own  sire  and  from  the  cockerel  mated 
to  a  hen  of  the  strain  are  better  in  quality  than  any  of  the 
cockerels  and  pullets  produced  the  previous  year  by  the  orig- 
inal new  hen,  this  will  be  satisfactory  evidence  that  the  new 
blood  is  of  good  quality,  and  the  offspring  of  this  third  genera- 
tion may  be  sparingly  infused  into  the  blood  lines  of  the  strain. 

Sometimes  the  fancier  prefers  to  select  a  male  from  outside 
the  strain  for  the  introduction  of  new  blood.  In  such  case, 
the  male  should  be  mated  to  two  or  three  of  the  best  hens 
of  the  strain.  If  the  offspring  from  these  crosses  show  an 
improvement  over  their  parents,  some  of  the  pullets  so  pro- 
duced should  be  mated  to  their  sire,  and  one  of  the  best  cock- 
erels should  be  mated  to  his  mother  to  test  the  producing 
quality  of  the  new  blood.  Even  though  the  offspring  from 
both  of  these  series  of  crosses  may  be  reasonably  desirable, 
caution  should  be  exercised  in  the  introduction  of  this  blood 
into  the  established  strain.  It  should  not  be  attempted  before 
the  third  generation. 

In  both  of  the  above  methods,  if  the  offspring  are  not  alto- 
gether desirable,  the  entire  lot,  both  the  original  fowls  and  the 
younger  ones,  should  be  discarded,  new  fowls  obtained,  and 
the  trial  repeated.  It  is  always  desirable  to  have  new  blood 
ready  to  introduce  into  a  strain,  and  to  accomplish  this  it  is 
advisable  to  have  one  or  two  hens  of  desirable  quality  con- 
stantly being  bred  as  just  described. 

21.     Maintenance  of  Quality  in  a  Strain. — It  is  of  the 

greatest  importance  to  maintain  quality  in  a  strain  of  exhi- 
bition poiiltry.  This  means  that  the  fowls  must  possess  in 
the  highest  degree  the  three  requirements  of  size,  shape,  and 


92  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §2 

color.  After  the  best  obtainable  fowls  have  been  selected 
for  the  establishment  of  a  strain,  it  is  necessary  to  select  the 
offspring  from  these  in  such  way  as  to  increase  the  good  qual- 
ities of  the  fowls  to  the  greatest  possible  extent.  The  fowls 
in  the  strain  cannot  remain  stationary,  or  just  as  good  as  the 
originals.  They  must  either  improve  or  deteriorate  in  quality. 
As  soon  as  there  is  any  evidence  of  a  decline  in  any  of  the  three 
essential  qualities  of  the  strain,  it  will  be  necessary  to  intro- 
duce new  blood  into  it,  if  success  is  to  be  maintained. 

Size  can  be  maintained  by  breeding  from  good-sized  hens 
that  possess  abundant  vitality.  Pullets  should  seldom,  if 
ever,  be  used  for  the  perpetuation  of  quality,  because  imma- 
turity in  the  females  counts  against  size  and  vitality  in  the 
offspring.  Shape  can  be  maintained  by  breeding  from  fowls 
that  possess  it  to  a  marked  degree.  In  solid-colored  fowls, 
such  as  white,  buff,  and  black,  color  can  be  most  easily  main- 
tained if  fowls  of  good,  even  color,  having  excellent  shape,  are 
bred  from.  In  parti-colored  fowls,  or  in  fowls  that  are  striped, 
barred,  penciled,  or  blended  with  two  or  more  colors,  it  will 
be  more  difficult  to  maintain  perfect  color  and  markings. 
The  details  of  color  breeding  will  be  fully  discussed  in  treating 
of  each  variety. 


METHODS  OF  MATING 

22.  Mating  is  the  act  of  pairing  a  male  and  a  female  for 
the  purpose  of  producing  offspring.  When  fowls  are  mated 
to  produce  other  fowls  suitable  for  exhibition,  the  breeder 
selects  the  fowls  for  mating  with  a  view  to  obtaining  in  the 
offspring  a  certain  combination  of  desirable  characters.  It  is 
never  possible  to  obtain  more  than  a  certain  percentage  of 
desirable  offspring  from  any  mating,  but  this  percentage  will 
be  high  or  low  according  to  the  skill  of  the  breeder.  Two 
important  factors  influence  the  value  of  the  results :  the  ancestry 
of  each  parent  must  be  accurately  known;  and  absolute  con- 
trol must  be  maintained  over  the  fowls  that  are  being  mated, 
so  that  the  breeder  may  know  that  those  he  desires  to  mate 
actually  do  so,  and  that  no  others-  mate  with  them. 


§  2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  93 

The  most  successful  breeders  of  poultry  are  those  who  have 
managed  their  fowls  best  and  have  been  able  to  control  their 
matings  with  the  greatest  certainty.  The  rate  of  improve- 
ment in  poultry,  or  in  fact  in  any  animals,  lessens  as  the  uncer- 
tainty of  the  matings  increases.  Notwithstanding  the  fact 
that  poultry  will  reproduce  more  rapidly  than  horses,  cattle, 
sheep,  swine,  dogs,  etc.,  these  larger  animals  have  been  more 
easily  improved  in  every  way  than  poultry,  because  the  sire 
and  dam  can  be  better  controlled.  The  uncertainty  in  regard 
to  the  blood  lines  of  fowls  retards  their  improvement. 

Real  quality  in  exhibition  fowls  can  be  reproduced  only  by 
the  most  careful  mating,  so  that  the  succeeding  generations 
possess  as  far  as  possible  all  the  qualities  that  are  demanded 
by  the  Standard.  The  average  quality  of  exhibition  fowls  is 
getting  higher  year  by  year,  and  each  year  in  many  localities 
the  honors  of  the  show  room  go  to  better  fowls  than  those  of 
the  year  before.  To  keep  pace  with  this,  it  is  necessary  to 
practice  the  most  successful  methods  in  mating,  as  well  as  in 
raising,  exhibition  poultry.  The  practice  of  breeding  fowls 
promiscuously  and  selecting  the  best  offspring  for  exhibition, 
cannot  be  followed  with  success. 

23.  Mating  in  Pairs. — The  mating  together  of  a  male 
and  a  female  fowl  in  such  way  that  the  parents  of  the  offspring 
can  be  definitely  known  is  called  mating  in  pairs.  This 
does  not  commonly  mean  that  a  male  shoiild  be  mated  with 
but  one  female,  but  rather  that  a  female  should  be  mated  with 
but  one  male.  There  are  two  principal  methods  of  mating 
in  pairs.  The  first  is  to  confine  one  male  and  several  females 
in  a  yard  and  trap-nest  the  females.  As  the  sire  is  the  same 
for  all  the  chicks,  it  is  thus  possible  to  know  the  parents  of  all 
the  offspring.  Trap  nests,  however,  have  been  objected  to 
on  the  ground  that  they  are  annoying  to  the  hen  and  distiurb 
her  sufficiently  to  lessen  her  power  of  producing  at  her  best. 
For  this  reason  some  breeders  prefer  the  second  method  of 
mating  in  pairs.  This  consists  in  having  a  separate  pen  and 
yafd  for  each  hen,  and  transferring  the  male  from  pen  to  pen 
during  the  mating  season. 


94  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  2 

24.  single  Mating. — ^When  fowls  are  mated  for  the  pro- 
duction, from  the  same  pair,  of  both  male  and  female  offspring 
fit  for  exhibition,  the  process  is  called  single  mating.  This 
may  be  practiced  with  most  varieties.  Attempts  have  fre- 
quently been  made  to  produce  by  single  matings  the  most 
delicately  marked  fowls  of  the  varieties  most  difficult  to  pro- 
duce, but  seldom  have  the  results  been  equal  to  those  pro- 
duced by  double  mating.  Fowls  of  fairly  good  quality  in 
Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  and  Brown  Leghorns  have  been  pro- 
duced by  single  mating,  but  the  most  desirable  shade  of  color 
in  both  of  these,  as  demanded  at  the  present  time,  cannot  be 
produced  by  single  mating. 

25.  Double  Mating. — The  mating  of  one  pair  of  fowls  for 
the  purpose  of  producing  male  offspring,  and  another  pair  for 
the  production  of  female  offspring  is  called  double  mating. 
This  is  practiced  to  a  great  extent  in  the  production  of  Barred 
Plymouth  Rocks,  Brown  Leghorns,  partridge-colored  fowls 
of  aU  breeds,  and  to  some  extent  in  producing  fowls  that  have 
penciling  or  lacing  in  their  plumage.  A  detailed  explanation 
of  the  proper  method  of  double  mating  will  be  found  in  the 
directions  for  mating  varieties  in  which  this  practice  is  fol- 
lowed. In  double  mating,  great  care  must  be  taken  to  see  that 
the  male  and  the  female  blood  lines  are  kept  separate;  if  the 
blood  lines  are  crossed,  color  will  be  injured. 

26.  Yard  Mating. — The  keeping  of  a  male  and  several 
females  together  in  yards,  or  mating  in  pairs,  is  termed  yard 
mating  when  neither  trap  nests  nor  other  system  of  iden- 
tification of  the  eggs  of  each  hen  is  employed.  Consequently, 
yard  mating  is  not  accurate  enough  for  scientific  breeding. 

27.  Theoretical  Mating. — No  matings  are  more  cer- 
tain of  failure  than  the  ordinary  tlieoretical,  or,  as  it  is  often 
called,  bapliazard  mating.  Fowls  selected  only  because  of 
their  outward  appearance  seldom  produce  satisfactory  offspring. 
For  instance,  the  mating  of  a  few  hens  gathered  from  different 
flocks  with  a  male  from  another  locality  is  likely  to  restdt  in 
disappointment,  even  though  all  of  the  fowls  may  be  of  fine 
quality. 


§  2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  95 

Matings  between  fowls  deficient  in  some  characters  with 
fowls  that  are  overdeveloped  in  these  respects,  on  the  sup- 
position that  the  offspring  will  be  a  happy  medium,  seldom 
produce  satisfactory  results.  The  same  is  true  when  a  dark- 
colored  male  and  a  pale-colored  female  of  the  same  variety 
are  mated  together  in  the  hope  of  producing  a  medium  shade 
in  the  offspring.  The  result  is  usually  an  undesirable  mottled 
effect. 

Many  other  instances  of  theoretical  matings  might  be  noted, 
but  the  foregoing  are  sufficient  to  illustrate.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  theoretical  matings  are  of  no  value  imtil 
they  have  been  thoroughly  tested  in  a  practical  way,  because 
experience  has  shown  that  the  great  majority  of  theoretical 
matings  will  not  produce  the  results  expected  of  them. 

28.  Practical  Mating. — The  matings  that  are  made  after 
a  breeder  has  had  considerable  experience  in  carefiil  breeding 
are  called  practical  matings,  and  if  the  breeder's  experience 
has  been  of  the  proper  kind,  such  matings  are  likely  to  be  most 
prolific  of  good  results.  There  are  breeders  who,  year  after 
year,  produce  fowls  of  the  highest  quahty  and  of  the  varieties 
most  difficult  to  handle.  Only  such  fanciers  as  are  fully 
equipped  for  securing  improvements  with  the  varieties  they 
handle  are  able  to  secure  good  results. 

To  be  successful,  a  breeder  should  possess  the  following 
characteristics:  a  full  determination  to  succeed;  a  full  knowl- 
edge of  Standard  requirements ;  familiarity  with  methods  that 
have  been  successfid  with  the  strain  he  is  handling;  the  ability 
to  select  quality,  that  is,  the  proper  size,  shape,  and  color; 
and  the  patience  to  be  content  to  work  year  after  year  with 
the  idea  of  ultimately  being  able  to  establish  a  strain  of  fine 
quality.  It  would  be  mere  chance  that  a  breeder  should  be 
able  to  select  quality  of  a  better  kind  than  he  had  ever  seen. 


96  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  2 


MATING-CHAUT  SYSTEM  OF  BREEDING 

29.  The  work  of  poultry  breeding  is  gradually  assuming 
the  precision  and  certainty  of  an  art  directed  and  controlled 
by  science.  The  time  is  rapidly  passing  when  chance  is  to 
have  sway  in  the  poultry  yard,  for  the  keen  and  intelligent 
rivalry  among  fanciers  has  rendered  the  observance  of  scientific 
methods  indispensable.  The  art  of  combining  every  factor 
of  physical  excellence  into  an  ideal  strain  of  poultry,  and  of 
then  working  along  straight  lines  until  this  ideal  strain  has 
become  actual  is  the  aim  of  every  scientific  breeder.  In  the 
attainment  of  the  best  results,  there  are  many  aids,  among 
which  a  good  mating  chart  such  as  shown  in  Fig.  8,  is  perhaps 
the  most  helpful.  The  first  guides  of  this  kind  had  many 
faults;  they  were  vague,  unsymmetrical,  and  confusing;  and,  in 
consequence,  they  served  but  poorly  the  purpose  for  which  they 
were  intended.  It  is  believed  that  the  chart  there  shown  has 
few  of  the  faults  referred  to,  and  that  it  will  be  found  a  trust- 
worthy means  of  directing  the  procedure  of  the  poultr3rman. 

30.  Description  of  tlie  Chart. — The  lines  of  the  chart 
are  in  two  colors,  blue  and  red.  The  blue  lines  represent 
the  blood  of  the  male,  and  the  red  lines  show  the  blood  of  the 
female.  The  groups  of  offspring  from  the  various  matings 
are  indicated  by  circles  numbered  from  3  to  18,  and  beside 
each  of  these  circles  are  fractions  in  blue  and  red  showing 
the  quantity  of  male  blood  and  female  blood,  respectively,  in 
each  group.  The  chart  shows  only  a  few  generations,  but  it 
is,  of  course,  capable  of  indefinite  extension;  or  it  may  be  used 
without  extension.  Thus,  if  a  pair  of  fowls  be  selected  from 
any  group,  as,  for  example,  from  group  18,  the  male  may  be 
regarded  as  1  and  the  female  as  S,  and  the  chart  will  serve  as 
before.  The  groups  3,  7,  11,  and  16,  which  are  equally  dis- 
tant from  the  sides,  show  an  equal  quantity  of  male  and  female 
blood  from  the  original  pair.  The  groups  on  the  right  of  these 
have  an  excess  of  male  blood,  and  those  on  the  left,  an  excess 
of  female  blood.  To  find  the  fractions  showing  the  propor- 
tion of  male  to  female  blood  in  any  group,  it  is  necessary  only 


Female 


MATING    CHART 


Male 


§2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  97 

to  halve  the  blood  in  the  two  groups  from  which  the  group  in 
question  is  derived.  Thus,  group  18  comes  from  groups  11 
and  13.  In  these  the  blood  of  the  female  represented  by  2  is 
2+ A,  or  yi.  This  divided  by  2  gives  ii  as  the  quantity  of 
blood  from  2;  and  i+H,  or  fi,  is  the  total  blood  foimd  in  11 
and  13  of  the  male  ancestor  1.  One-half  of  fe,  or  fi,  is  the 
quantity  of  male  ancestral  blood  in  group  18. 

By  comparing  groups  equidistant  from  the  middle  of  the 
chart  on  the  left  and  right  the  breeder  can  determine  the  dom- 
inance over  certain  features  that  is  possessed  by  the  male  or 
the  female  ancestors.  Thus,  a  comparison  of.  15  and  17  will 
determine  the  question  of  prepotency  as  between  the  male  and 
the  female  ancestor.  The  chart,  in  short,  is  a  perfect  and 
trustworthy  guide  in  experimenting  for  the  estabUshment  of 
any  feature  desired  in  the  offspring. 

31.  A  detailed  explanation  of  the  chart  may  be  made  as 
foUows:  The  first  year  the  original  male  1  and  female  2  are 
mated  and  produce  the  offspring  in  group  3,  the  blood  of  each 
of  the  individuals  of  which  comes  half  from  male  1  and  half 
from  female  2. 

The  second  year  female  2  is  mated  to  one  of  her  own  sons 
from  3  and  produces  4,  a  group  in  which  each  of  the  fowls 
derives  three-fourths  of  its  blood  from  female  2  and  one-fourth 
of  its  blood  from  male  1.  Similarly,  the  second  year  male  1 
is  mated  to  one  of  his  own  daughters  from  group  3  and  pro- 
duces 5,  a  group  in  which  each  of  the  fowls  derives  three- 
fourths  of  its  blood  from  male  1  and  one-fourth  of  its  blood 
from  female  2. 

The  third  year  a  cockerel  from  4  is  mated  with  female  2, 
who  is  his  grandmother,  to  produce  6.  Each  of  the  fowls  in  6 
will  thus  derive  seven-eighths  of  its  blood  from  female  2,  and 
only  one-eighth  from  male  1.  Likewise,  in  the  third  year, 
one  or  more  pullets  from  5  are  mated  with  male  1  to  produce  8. 
Each  of  the  fowls  in  8  will  thus  derive  seven-eighths  of  its 
blood  from  the  original  sire  1  and  only  one-eighth  from  female  2. 
In  the  same  year,  pullets  from  4  and  cockerels  from  5,  or  vice 
versa,  will  produce  7,  a  group  in  which  each  of  the  fowls  will 


98  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §2 

derive  half  of  its  blood  from  male  1  and  half  from  female  2. 
The  members  of  7  will  thus  have  the  same  blood  elements  as 
those  of  3.  Considered  from  a  theoretical  standpoint  only, 
it  would  be  possible  to  obtain  the  same  results,  that  is,  fowls 
with  the  same  blood  elements  as  those  in  7,  by  mating  together 
full  brothers  and  sisters  from  3,  but  this  is  not  considered  an 
advisable  practice,  because  the  mating  of  brother  and  sister 
hastens  degeneration. 

The  fourth  year  the  groups  9,  10,  11,  12,  and  13  are  produced, 
and  the  fifth  year  the  groups  1^,  15,  16,  17,  and  18  are  pro- 
duced by  the  matings  that  are  indicated  by  the  lines  on  the 
chart. 

As  already  stated,  this  system  may  be  carried  on  for  as  many 
years  as  may  be  desired,  provided  only  matiu-e  hens  of  marked 
vitality,  having  the  best  size,  shape,  and  color,  and  males  hav- 
ing similar  qualities  are  used  for  breeding.  Special  care  must 
be  taken  to  keep  the  identification  markings  of  the  fowls  in 
each  group  exact,  because  it  is  only  by  mating  the  fowls  from 
the  proper  groups  that  the  best  results  can  be  attained.  If  the 
identity  of  the  fowls  is  lost  it  will  be  impossible  to  continue 
the  breeding  system  with  any  degree  of  certainty. 


PLUMAGE  COLOR  IN  FOWLS 

32.  Color  in  the  plumage  of  poultry  is  due  to  the  secre- 
tion of  certain  pigments  from  the  blood.  The  mixing  of  these 
pigments  -by  cross-breeding  produces  blends  and  mixttues  of 
colors.  The  colors  comjnon  to  poultry  are  black,  red,  white, 
buff,  and  blue.  Red  is  seldom  if  ever  foimd  alone  in  the  plu- 
mage of  fowls;  it  is  usually  accompanied  by  black.  Black 
pltimage  is  apt  to  show  both  white  and  red  markings.  Part- 
ridge-colored fowls  have  red  and  black  shading  in  their  plumage. 
Buff  is  usually  accompanied  by  either  black  or  white  or  both. 
A  buff  fowl  of  an  absolutely  true  color,  without  either  shadings 
of  black  or  white,  would  be  almost  a  novelty.  Pyle  Game  fowls 
show  spots  of  black  in  the  white  feathers.  Blue  results  from 
a  mixture  of  black  and  white. 


§  2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  99 

33.  Sources  of  Color  in  Poultry  Plumage. — Shades 
of  color  and  markings  change  so  frequently  in  the  poiiltry 
world  that  if  the  breeder  desires  to  keep  up  to  date  he  must 
be  able  to  produce  them,  and  in  order  to  do  this,  he  must 
tmderstand  what  fowls  these  colors  originated  from.  The 
sources  of  the  various  colors  in  poultry  is  in  their  ancestors. 
The  black-red  combination  is  found  in  the  red  jungle  fowl  and 
in  the  Malay  and  Aseel  game  fowls.  White  and  the  various 
shades  of  gray  are  common  in  the  Yokohama  fowls  and  in  the 
Ceylon  and  the  gray  jungle  fowls.  These  fowls  have  also  red, 
black,  buff,  and  blue  in  their  plumage.  So  far  as  is  known, 
the  Cochins  were  the  original  biiff  fowls,  and  the  partridge 
color  in  modem  fowls  came  through  the  Partridge  Cochin. 

34.  stability  of  Color  and  Markings. — ^Poultry  fan- 
ciers are  apt  to  be  led  astray  when  speculating  as  to  the  natural 
stability,  or  fixedness,  of  the  original  markings  and  colors  in 
wild  fowls.  The  truth  is  that  the  most  beautifully  pliraiaged 
wild  fowls,  such  as  quail,  wild  water  fowls,  wild  turkeys, 
ostriches,  and  even  such  modest  birds  as  the  sparrows,  are  no 
more  exact  in  their  colors  and  markings  than  are  the  best  of 
domestic  poultry  in  which  the  colors  and  markings  are  most 
difficult  to  maintain.  This  is  fairly  conclusive  proof  that 
nature  never  intended  that  individuals  of  even  a  narrowly 
restricted  group,  like  a  variety,  should  be  perfect  copies  of 
one  another.  The  same  principle  will  be  found  to  hold  true 
in  leaves,  spears  of  grass,  flowers,  etc.  If  it  were  not  for  this 
variation,  all  possibility  of  a  diversity  in  nature  would  be 
removed,  and  the  result  would  be  a  monotony  that  would  be 
wearisome  to  both  the  eye  and  the  mind.  Unity  in  variety 
is  the  universal  scheme  in  nature. 

35.  Black  Plumage  and  Wliite  Plumage. — These  two 
types  of  plumage,  because  they  are  exact  opposites  of  each 
other,  are  considered  together.  White  is  due  to  the  presence 
of  all  colors  in  combination,  and  black  is  due  to  the  absence  of 
all  color.  Though  it  is  not  generally  believed  that  a  black 
fowl  has  ever  come  as  a  sport  from  pure  white-plumaged  fowls, 
yet  the  albino  sport  from  black  fowls  is  of  frequent  occurrence, 


100  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  2 

and  usually  such  sports  have  the  purest  of  white  plumage. 
Some  of  the  purest  of  white-plumaged  fowls  have  come  from 
mating  with  a  white  Cochin  Bantam  hen  a  male  albino  sport 
from  a  Black  Cochin  Bantam.  Fowls  with  the  purest  of  white 
plumage  are  very  apt  to  show  black  spots  in  their  plumage 
or  to  have  feathers  which  are  all  or  partly  black.  This  is  not 
an  evidence  of  impiuity,  though  it  is  at  times  classed  as  a 
disqualification . 

When  black  fowls  are  cultivated  so  as  to  have  a  beetle-green- 
ish sheen  to  their  pliimage,  this  fathers  an  excess  of  color  which 
is  almost  certain  to  show  its  strength  in  the  production  of  pur- 
ple barrings  in  the  feathers.  The  more  pronounced  the  green 
sheen  the  more  likely  is  the  piurple  to  make  its  appearance, 
and  red  feathers  are  apt  to  grow  in  the  hackle,  saddle,  and  wing 
bows  of  fowls  having  such  brilliant  black  plumage.  There  is 
a  very  strong  objection  to  purple  barring  in  the  plumage  of 
fowls,  and  such  barring  cannot  be  removed  without  easy  detec- 
tion. Feathers  tinged  with  red  are  usually  so  few  in  number 
that  they  can  be  easily  removed,  and  thus  a  disqualification 
for  them  does  not  amoimt  to  much.  These  undesirable  purple 
and  reddish  sheens  are  particularly  apt  to  occur  in  offspring 
that  come  from  matings  in  which  both  the  male  and  the  female 
have  a  rich  beetle-green  sheen  on  their  plumage.  To  prevent 
the  offspring  from  having  these  undesirable  shades  in  their 
plumage,  females  with  the  least  sheen,  or  none  at  all  in  their 
plumage,  should  be  selected  for  mating  with  the  richly  colored 
males. 

The  best  white-plumaged  fowls  will  be  obtained  from  mating 
fowls  possessing  absolutely  white  plumage  on  all  parts  of 
their  bodies;  that  is,  pliimage  in  which  the  down  and  the  quills 
of  the  feathers,  as  well  as  the  surface,  are  white. 

36.  Buff  Plumage. — Buff  plumage  is  produced  by  mix- 
ing black,  white,  red,  and  yellow  in  proper  proportions.  It  is 
important  to  know  what  colors  have  been  used  in  producing 
buff,  because  such  knowledge  is  a  guide  to  a  certain  extent  in 
the  selection  of  fowls  for  mating.  Biiff-plumaged  fowls  with 
white  in  their  flight  feathers  are  almost  certain  to  produce 


§2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  101 

offspring  that  will  lack  color,  and  those  that  have  black  in 
their  flight  feathers  usually  produce  offspring  darker  in  surface 
color  than  is  desirable. 

The  true  color  for  btiff-plumaged  fowls  is  a  rich,  golden  buff, 
a  happy  medium  between  the  lemon  and  the  reddish  shades  of 
buff.  This,  as  might  be  expected,  is  the  most  difficult  shade 
of  buff  to  develop,  yet  it  has  been  produced  in  such  perfection 
that  the  fowls  having  it  were  one  even  shade  of  rich  golden 
buff  without  a  trace  of  white  or  black  in  wings,  tail,  or  other 
parts  of  their  plumage.  This  shade  of  buff  is  the  kind  that 
will  stand  the  strain  of  weather  conditions  without  changing 
enough  to  become  unattractive. 

The  production  of  solid  buff-pltmiaged  fowls,  or  in  fact  of 
any  fowls  of  a  solid  color,  can  be  accomplished  only  when  even, 
or  perfect,  shades  are  used  in  mating.  Some  breeders  mate 
light  and  dark  shades  of  a  solid  color  in  the  hope  of  getting  a 
medium  shade  in  the  offspring.  This  is  sometimes  moderately 
successful,  but  in  the  case  of  buff  fowls  it  is  very  rarely  satis- 
factory. The  mating  of  light  and  dark  shades  of  buff  will  com- 
monly produce  offspring  of  a  very  undesirable  mealy  appear- 
ance, due  to  the  fact  that  their  feathers  will  be  of  different 
shades  of  buff. 

The  shade  of  color  in  buff  varieties  can  best  be  improved  by 
mating  males  and  females  of  an  even  shade  of  golden  buff.  The 
top  color  of  the  male  should  be  more  brilliant  than  in  the 
female,  and  the  breast  and  body  color  of  both  sexes  should  be 
as  nearly  alike  as  possible.  If  some  difference  in  the  breast 
color  is  unavoidable,  the  breast  plumage  of  the  male  may  be 
slightly  deeper  in  shade  than  in  the  female.  The  imder  plu- 
mage in  both  sexes  should  be  buff  of  a  shade  that  is  not  quite 
so  deep  as  the  surface  color.  Both  black  and  white  should, 
as  far  as  possible,  be  eliminated  from  the  plimiage  of  both 
male  and  female  buff  fowls  in  a  mating. 

37.  Blue  Plumage. — Blue  plumage  can  be  produced  in 
every  breed  that  has  variety  colors  of  black,  white,  and  biiff, 
as  blue-plumaged  fowls  will  result  from  mating  black  fowls 
with  fowls  having  either  white  or  buff  plumage.     Blue  has 


102  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  2 

existed  as  a  plumage  color  in  poultry  for  so  long  that  it  has 
come  to  be  recognized  as  a  true  color  for  poultry.  Wherever 
black  and  white  fowls  have  been  kept  together  on  the  same 
farm,  fowls  having  blue  plumage  have  frequently  appeared. 
Such  fowls  may  be  found  on  almost  any  farm  where  poultry 
is  kept.  In  spite  of  aU  the  blue-plumaged  poultry  that  has 
been  produced  at  various  times,  the  Blue  Andalusian,  the  Blue 
Duck,  and  the  Slate,  or  Blue,  turkey  are  the  only  domestic 
fowls  that  have  been  bred  to  any  extent  with  blue  feathers. 
Some  of  these  fowls  have  an  edging  of  black  on  their  feathers 
and  some  have  only  one  shade  of  blue,  usually  a  slaty  shade, 
with  spots  of  black  occurring  on  the  feathers. 

38.  Parti -Colored  Plumage. — One  of  the  most  difficult 
tasks  for  the  fancier  is  the  production  of  parti-colored  fowls 
such  as  the  Light  Brahmas,  Colimibian  Wyandottes,  and  fowls 
that  have  plumage  colors  the  same  as  the  Light  Brahmas, 
White-Crested  Black  Polish,  etc.  To  keep  each  shade  of  color 
separate,  and  to  confine  each  shade  to  the  part  of  the  body  to 
which  it  belongs,  is  a  problem  in  color  breeding  that  demands 
the  greatest  care.  This  problem  is  complicated  because  from 
time  to  time  the  fashion  in  these  parti-colored  varieties  changes, 
and  slightly  different  combinations  or  arrangements  of  colors 
have  to  be  obtained. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  tasks  of  the  fancier  is  to  confine  all 
of  the  white  in  the  White-Crested  Black  Polish  to  the  crest. 
This  is  a  feat  that  requires  a  great  deal  of  skill.  Another  diffi- 
ciilt  task  is  to  maintain  intact  the  beautiful  striping  in  the 
hackle  of  the  Light  Brahmas,  which  extends  almost  to  the 
point  of  the  feather,  and  yet  is  completely  encircled  with  white. 
This  same  difficulty  presents  itself  in  aU  varieties  having  Light 
Brahma  plumage  color.  Equal  care  must  be  used  in  mating 
the  varieties  of  fowls  that  have  the  Dark  Brahma  colors.  In 
these  the  requirements  are  to  confine  the  gray  and  the  white 
to  the  parts  to  which  they  belong,  to  have  them  properly  dis- 
tributed, to  maintain  the  beautiful  penciling  of  the  female, 
and  to  secure  the  brilliant  glistening  black  in  the  breast  and 
body  plimiage  of  the  males  and  a  clean,  clear  top  color. 


§2     .  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  103 

39.     Influence    of    Color    of    Under    Plumage. — The 

downy  portion  of  the  plumage,  which  is  not  visible  when  the 
plumage  of  a  fowl  is  in  its  natiiral  position  is  called  the  under 
pltunage.  The  shade  of  color  in  the  under  pliraiage  in  par- 
ents has  a  considerable  influence  over  that  of  the  surface  color 
of  their  offspring,  and  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  proper 
shade  of  under  plumage  for  exhibition  purposes  and  the  proper 
shade  for  fowls  intended  to  breed  exhibition  fowls  of  some 
varieties  are  qiiite  different.  For  this  reason,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  discuss  the  color  of  the  tinder  plumage  of  each  variety 
separately  when  the  directions  for  mating  the  various  varieties 
are. given.  At  this  point,  only  a  few  general  principles  and  a 
few  specific  cases  will  be  considered. 

As  a  general  principle,  it  may  be  stated  that,  aside  from 
the  shade  of  color  in  the  surface  plumage  of  the  parents,  the 
darker  the  under  plimiage  of  the  parents  the  darker  will  be 
the  siirface  plumage  of  the  offspring;  and,  conversely,  that  the 
lighter  the  imder  plimiage  of  the  parents,  the  lighter  will  be 
the  surface  plimiage  of  the  offspring.  A  proper  shade  of  color 
in  the  under  plimiage  of  the  parent  fowls  will  always  have  a 
desirable  influence  over  the  color  of  the  surface  plumage  of 
the  offspring. 

Dark-plumaged  fowls  that  have  a  light  shade  of  color  in  the 
under  plumage  will  produce  offspring  with  a  lighter  or  softer 
shade  of  color  in  the  surface  plumage  than  their  own.  Black- 
plumaged  fowls  that  have  gray  or  white  in  their  under  plumage 
are  apt  to  produce  offspring  with  white  in  the  under  plumage 
of  the  neck  and  in  the  flights  and  the  secondary  feathers  of 
the  wings. 

Buff-plumaged  fowls  with  very  light  or  white  under  plu- 
mage will  produce  offspring  with  very  light-colored  surface 
plumage,  with  white  under  plumage,  and  white  in  the  flight 
feathers.  Buff-plumaged  fowls  with  dark  or  slaty  under 
plumage  will  produce  offspring  very  dark  in  surface  plumage, 
and  they  are  apt  to  have  black  in  the  tail  and  wings.  The 
proper  shade  of  color  in  the  under  plumage  of  buff-plumaged 
fowls  for  both  exhibition  and  breeding  purposes,  is  buff  lighter 
in  shade  than  the  surface  plumage. 


104  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §2 

Black  or  slate  color  in  the  under  plumage  of  Silver  Laced 
Wyandotte  breeding  fowls  will  cast  either  a  metallic  luster  or 
dark  shadings  over  the  surface  plumage  of  the  males  produced 
from  such  matings,  and  will  also  frequently  result  in  smut  in 
the  color  of  the  pliimage  of  the  back  and  breast  of  the  females. 
These  same  influences  are  also  noted  in  the  offspring  from 
matings  of  fowls  with  the  dark  tmder  plimiage  of  the  Dark 
Brahma,  and  of  all  other  varieties  of  fowls  that  have  the  color 
and  markings  that  belong  to  the  Dark  Brahmas.  A  clear, 
clean,  silvery  color  of  plumage  in  the  neck,  back,  saddle,  and 
wings  may  be  produced  in  this  variety  by  breeding  from  fowls 
that  have  light  gray  or  white  in  the  imder  plimiage;  but  to 
produce  satisfactory  offspring,  such  fowls  must  be  bred  in 
Hne  for  several  years  from  fowls  like  themselves. 

The  surface  plumage  of  the  backs  of  the  Silver  Laced  Wyan- 
dotte males  may  be  badly  overcast  with  black  as  a  result  of 
breeding  in  line  for  many  years  from  fowls  with  dark  under 
pltmiage.  The  claim  has  been  made  that  perfectly  clear- 
plirmaged  males  of  this  variety  have  been  produced  from 
parents  with  dark  tmder  plumage;  but  if  this  were  true,  it  is 
certain  that  more  of  such  males  would  be  exhibited  in  poultry 
shows.  Close  investigation  usually  shows  that  the  males  of 
the  Silver  Laced  Wyandottes  that  have  clear,  clean,  silvery- 
tinted  neck,  back,  saddle,  and  wing  pltimage,  not  only  have 
light  tmder  pltmiage  themselves,  but  that  the  same  is  true  of 
their  parents. 

In  parti-colored  fowls,  the  question  of  the  proper  shade  of 
imder  pltimage  is  complicated  by  the  necessity  for  separating 
the  colors  into  their  proper  proportions,  and  by  the  fact  that 
the  fashion  changes  every  little  while.  When,  for  instance, 
fashion  favors  an  excess  of  black  in  the  Light  Brahmas,  it 
is  necessary  to  ctdtivate  black  under  plumage  in  the  female 
parent.  Thus,  fowls  that  would  produce  the  most  desirable 
color  and  markings  in  their  offspring,  would  themselves  be 
debarred  from  competition  because  of  the  extreme  darkness 
of  their  under  plumage.  Without  such  a  dark  shade  of  under 
plumage  color  in  the  parents,  however,  it  would  be  almost 
impossible  to  produce  Light  Brahma  males  with  the  saddle 


§  2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  105 

plumage  striped  with  black  in  such  perfection  that  it  would 
rival  the  same  character  of  striping  in  the  Partridge  Cochin 
or  in  the  Brown  Leghorn. 

In  the  black-red  varieties,  such  as  the  partridge-colored 
fowls,  in  the  Cochins,  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  and  the 
Brown  Leghorns,  the  females  that  produce  the  exhibition 
males  would  be  debarred  from  competition  themselves  because 
their  color  is  too  dark. 


MISCELLANEOUS  INFORMATION 

40.  Age  of  Fowls  for  Mating. — ^Pullets  do  not  produce 
the  best  results  as  breeders,  and  it  is  only  under  unusual  cir- 
cumstances, such,  for  instance,  as  the  necessity  of  hastening 
the  improvement  of  a  strain,  or  of  obtaining  immediate  results 
from  a  pullet  of  fine  quality,  that  they  should  be  used  to  pro- 
duce eggs  for  hatching.  Under  no  circumstances  should  eggs 
be  hatched  from  ptillets  that  are  less  than  9  months  old.  When 
used  for  breeding,  a  pullet  shoiild  be  mated  with  a  cock  that  is 
past  18  months  of  age  and  has  abundant  vitality.  If  the  health 
of  such  a  pullet  is  maintained,  she  will  probably  produce  bet- 
ter offspring  in  her  second  year  of  laying  than  she  did  as  a 
puUet.  In  handling  pullets  as  breeders,  great  care  should  be 
taken  not  to  force  them  for  a  large  egg  yield,  as  this  will  be 
apt  to  injure  their  health. 

Hens  in  their  second  year  of  laying  are  better  than  pullets 
for  producing  chicks.  Females  of  this  age  that  produce  fowls 
of  the  finest  quality  for  the  show  room,  or  that  produce  offspring 
that  lay  a  large  nirmber  of  eggs,  should  be  kept  as  breeders  as 
long  as  they  wiU  lay  and  continue  to  be  strong  and  healthy. 
Hens  have  been  known  to  produce  as  many  as  thirty-five 
chicks  in  their  seventh  year  of  laying,  all  of  which  have  won 
honors  in  the  show  room.  Such  cases,  however,  are  rare 
instances  of  remarkable  producing  powers.  Hens  of  this  char- 
acter should  be  mated  each  year  either  to  the  best  cockerel 
produced  the  year  before  in  the  strain  that  descended  from 
her  or  else  to  her  own  best  son. 


106  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  §  2 

Early  hatched  cockerels — that  is,  those  hatched  prior  to 
May — are  well  suited  for  mating  the  following  March  with 
hens  in  their  second  year  of  laying.  Such  cockerels  should 
be  at  least  10  months  old,  well  grown,  fully  matured,  and  have 
remarkable  vigor — the  kind  of  cockerels  that  show  fight  when- 
ever approached.  On  an  average,  fine  offspring  should  be 
secured  from  such  matings.  However,  cockerels  younger  than 
10  months  of  age  are  frequently  mated  with  hens  in  their  sec- 
ond year  of  laying,  and  cockerels  and  pullets  both  less  than 
9  months  old  are  often  mated.  Such  matings  are  rarely 
satisfactory,  because  the  chicks  from  them  are  usually  under- 
sized, for  the  variety,  and  they  also  lack  vitality. 

The  best  males  for  mating  are  those  that  are  hatched  late 
in  the  fall  and  are  well  grown  and  full  of  vitality  by  the  second 
January  following,  at  which  time  they  will  probably  be  15  or 
16  months  old.  Their  value  for  mating  will  be  greatly  increased 
if  they  have  been  kept  apart  from  all  females,  and  have  been 
forced  by  feeding  into  as  large  a  growth  as  possible  while  enjoy- 
ing partial  freedom  on  a  range.  Males  of  this  kind  are  espe- 
cially valued  for  matings  in  the  Asiatic  and  general-purpose 
breeds. 

When  a  cockerel  has  shown  unusual  power,  either  in  pro- 
ducing many  pullets  that  lay  well  or  many  offspring  well  suited 
for  exhibition,  he  shoiild  be  retained  in  the  flock  as  long  as  he 
retains  his  power  of  transmitting  these  characters.  Cocks  in 
their  fifth  breeding  year  have  been  known  to  produce  cockerels 
and  piillets  that  have  won  in  the  keenest  competition.  In 
mating  old  cocks,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  they  are 
seldom  as  prolific  as  young  males,  and  therefore  should  be 
mated  with  fewer  hens.  A  cock  in  his  fifth  year  of  breeding 
should  be  mated  to  but  one  female,  and  this  female  should 
preferably  be  a  hen  in  her  second  year  of  laying,  or  at  least  more 
than  1  year  old. 

41.     Care  of  Females  Kept  for  Breeding.^Hens  and 

pullets  should  be  kept  apart  from  the  males,  except  during  the 
time  that  the  eggs  are  to  be  used  for  hatching.  The  females 
will  lay  fully  as  well  without  the  males,  and  there  will  also  be 


§  2  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  107 

the  additional  advantage  that  any  person  buying  the  infertile 
eggs  at  ordinary  market  rates  will  not  be  able  to  sectire  chicks 
from  them. 

The  males  shotdd  be  put  into  the  pens  with  the  females 
several  days  before  it  is  desired  to  save  eggs  for  hatching, 
as  the  first  fertile  eggs  will  not  be  laid  imtil  about  one  week 
from  the  time  the  male  is  put  in.  At  the  end  of  the  breeding 
season  the  eggs  will  continue  to  be  fertile  from  a  week  to 
10  days  after  the  males  have  been  taken  away. 

Some  males  will  not  fertilize  as  many  eggs  as  others,  and 
such  males  should  either  be  exchanged  for  others  or  be  mated 
to  fewer  hens.  All  males  will  be  more  proHfic  during  the 
spring  and  early  summer  months  than  during  any  other  season 
of  the  year. 

Males  will  injure  the  plumage  of  the  females  with  which 
they  are  mated,  and  thus  lessen  the  value  of  the  females 
for  exhibition.  For  this  reason,  the  males  should  run  with 
the  females  as  little  as  possible  during  the  show  season.  If 
kept  entirely  separate,  the  plumage  of  the  females  wiU  be  in 
better  condition  than  if  mated  with  the  males.  It  may  be 
necessary  at  times  to  introduce  a  male  among  them,  in  order 
to  lessen  their  ardor;  when  needed,  a  cockerel  of  light  weight 
should  be  used,  and  he  should  be  left  with  them  only  for  a 
short  time. 

42.  Marking  Fowls  for  Identification. — To  be  suc- 
cessful in  breeding  poultry,  the  fancier  must  be  accurate; 
that  is,  he  must  know  the  pedigrees  of  all  the  fowls  he  mates, 
and  must  be  certain  of  their  identity.  The  first  step  toward 
identifying  chicks  is  to  make  sure  of  the  hen  that  laid  the  egg, 
and  to  hatch  the  egg  in  such  a  way  that  the  chick  that  comes 
from  it  can  be  told  with  absolute  certainty.  After  the  chick 
appears,  it  is  necessary  to  mark  it  in  some  way  so  that  it  can 
be  identified  at  any  time  during  its  life. 

There  are  several  methods  of  marking  chicks.  The  toe- 
marking  system  is  satisfactory,  but  it  does  not  admit  of  a 
large  enough  number  of  variations  when  the  breeding  operations 
are  on  an  extensive  scale. 


108 


STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY 


§2 


Metal  bands  for  attaching  to  the  shanks  are  a  satisfactory 
method  of  marking  fowls,  and  permit  of  sufficient  variations. 
Several  forms  of  aluminum  bands  are  shown  in  Fig.  9.  The 
small  band  shown  in  (a)  is  suitable  for  placing  around  the 
shank  of  a  chick,  and  later,  when  the  shank  grows  too  large 
for  this  band,  it  may  be  removed  and  fastened  through  the  web 
of  the  wing.  The  band  shown  in  (6)  is  used  for  chicks  also, 
but  is  rather  too  wide  to  insert  in  the  web  of  the  wing.  Both 
of  these  bands  are  shown  in  their  actual  size.  After  a  fowl 
reaches  its  full  growth,  a  band  like  that  shown  in  (c),  which 


(a) 


isp^ 


li,,  o 


0>) 


j||!illl|» ,6 


'%, 


.,:,i,!,!l|. 


(c) 


may  be  sealed,  may  be  fastened  about  the  shank.  This  band, 
fastened  with  a  rivet,  is  shown  in  (d),  the  fastening  being  done 
very  easily  with  a  pair  of  pincers,  as  shown  in  Fig.  10.  After 
being  well  fastened  or  sealed,  such  a  band  will  last  the  lifetime 
of  a  fowl,  unless  removed  by  cutting.  All  of  these  bands  may 
be  stamped  with  any  number  or  other  characters  desired. 
A  type  of  aluminum  band  known  as  an  interlocking  band  is 
shown  in  Fig.  9  (^) . 

Colored  celluloid  bands  are  used  for  marking  fowls  kept 
in  large  flocks.     They  are  most  useful  when  used  in  connec- 


STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY 


109 


tion  with  the  metal  bands  and  serve  as  a  means  of  quick  iden- 
tification for  various  large  groups  of  fowls  when  they  are  kept 


in  big  flocks ;  that  is,  all  the  chicks  hatched  in  one  year  may  have 
a  blue  band;  those  hatched  the  next  year,  a  red  band;  the  next, 
a  yellow  band;  and  so  on.  In  this  way  the  age  of  fowls  may  be 
told  at  a  glance.  The  bands  may  be  used  also  to  identify 
strains  or  families  of  fowls.  Though  they  have  their  useful- 
ness in  this  way,  they  are  not  an  absolutely  accurate  means 
of  identifying  fowls ;  in  addition  they  are  liable  to  be  lost  from 
the  shank;  in  such  cases,  if  no  other  band  were  used,  the  iden- 
tity of  a  fowl  would  be  lost.  Three  celMoid  markers  are  shown 
in  Fig.  11.  The  ring  shown  in  (a)  encircles  the  shank  a  num- 
ber of  times.  One  end  of  this  is  hooked  about  the  shank  and 
then  the  rest  is  wound  around  much  in  the  same  manner  that 
a  key  is  worked  on  a  key  ring.     The  ring  shown  at  (6)  is  a 


small  one  of  the  same  type  as  that  shown  at  (a).  At  (c)  is 
shown  a  flat  celluloid  band.  Poultry  supply  houses  sell  cellu- 
loid rings  and  bands  in  as  many  as  eight  different  colors. 


INCUBATION  AND  BROODING 
FOR  EXHIBITION  POULTRY 


INCUBATION 


INFLUENCE    AND    CONTROL    OF    FERTILITY 

!•  The  percentage  of  fertile  eggs  depends  directly  on  the 
health  of  the  fowls,  and  the  only  indication  that  a  reasonable 
number  of  hatchable  eggs  may  be  expected  from  any  mating 
may  be  found  in  the  degree  of  health  and  vitality  that  the 
fowls  exhibit.  None  of  the  many  plans  that  have  been  devised 
to  control  the  fertility  of  eggs  is  of  much  value  if  the  health 
of  the  fowls  is  poor;  if  the  fowls  have  good  health  and 
abundant  vitality,  a  large  percentage  of  the  eggs  will  be  fertile, 
and  there  is  no  necessity  for  following  any  special  plan.  The 
health  and  vitality  of  breeding  fowls  is  influenced  by  a  number 
of  factors,  which  thus  indirectly  affect  the  percentage  of  fertile 
eggs  and  the  health  and  vitality  of  the  offspring. 

2.  Influence  of  Feeding  on  Fertility. — Improper  feed- 
ing or  pampering  with  rich  feeds  is  one  of  the  most  common 
causes  of  unsatisfactory  results  with  exhibition  poultry.  Usu- 
ally exhibition  fowls  are  not  only  overfed  but  improper  feeds  are 
given  diiring  the  period  of  preparation  for  the  show  room  and 
also  during  the  hatching  season,  and  this  is  largely  responsible 

111 


112  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT     §  3 

for  a  lack  of  fertility  in  their  eggs.  The  coddling  and  over- 
feeding creates  a  feverish  condition  of  the  blood  and  thus  robs 
the  fowls  of  their  health  and  vigor.  Diiring  the  show  season 
particular  care  should  be  taken  not  to  overfeed  the  exhibition 
fowls,  for  they  will  become  fat  and  their  value  for  early  use 
in  the  breeding  pen  will  be  destroyed. 

In  feeding  fowls,  it  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the 
eggs  are  produced  from  the  material  that  is  extracted  from  the 
feed  eaten.  Hence,  the  importance  of  giving  the  proper  feeds, 
so  that  the  eggs  will  contain  the  elements  of  vigorous  life. 
Such  eggs  can  be  laid  only  by  hens  that  have  had  the  most 
natural  feeds;  that  is,  a  properly  balanced  ration  of  grain, 
animal,  and  green  feeds.  Green  feed  diiring  the  winter  months 
is  of  relatively  more  importance  than  the  other  feeds,  and  the 
power  of  green  feed  to  give  hatchable  quality  to  eggs  caa 
scarcely  be  overestimated. 

Care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  male  fowls  in  a  mating 
get  sufficient  feed.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  males  in 
a  mating  are  imusually  attentive  to  the  hens  and  refrain  from 
eating  imtil  the  hens  have  been  fully  satisfied.  When  this 
occurs  the  males  will  not  get  enough  to  eat  and  should  be  fed 
apart  from  the  females.  To  overcome  this  difficialty  some 
fanciers  have  tried  the  method  of  hanging  feed  cups  out  of 
the  reach  of  the  hens,  but  at  a  height  from  which  the  males 
can  feed  readily.  This,  however,  is  usually  a  failure,  because 
some  of  the  hens,  more  active  than  the  rest,  will  fly  up  and 
scatter  the  grain  on  the  floor  of  the  house. 

3.  Effect  of  Excessive  Laying. —  Excessive  laying  is 
always  detrimental  to  fertility.  The  best  fertility  can  be 
sectired  only  when  the  entire  strength  and  vitality  of  both  the 
male  and  the  female  can  be  concentrated  in  three  or  four  dozen 
eggs  for  hatching.  Hens  that  have  laid  proliiically  diuing  the 
winter,  that  is,  from  five  to  six  dozen  eggs  before  the  time  of 
saving  their  eggs  for  hatching,  have  their  vitality  very  much 
reduced,  and  their  eggs  are  frequently  infertile.  Hens  that  have 
not  laid  too  many  eggs  before  the  hatching  season  and  that  lay 
but  few  during  the  hatching  season  may  reasonably  be  expected 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  113 

to  lay  eggs  each  of  which  will  produce  a  chick  with  abundant 
vitality.  Another  point  that  is  important  to  bear  in  mind  in 
connection  with  the  eggs  from  prolific  hens  is  that  the  eggs 
from  such  hens  are  usually  smaller  than  the  normal  and  con- 
tain less  albumen  than  is  desirable;  also,  this  albumen  is  of  a 
watery  consistency,  and  gives  less  vitality  to  the  embryo  chick 
than  albumen  of  proper  consistency.  The  yolks  of  eggs  laid 
by  practically  all  the  hens  .of  one  breed  will  be  found  to  be  of 
a  uniform  size;  hence,  if  the  egg  is  smaller  than  the  normal 
it  will  usually  be  found  lacking  in  albumen. 

The  practice  of  restraining  the  best  producers  from  laying 
prior  to  the  hatching  season  is  of  advantage  to  their  offspring, 
because  it  saves  all  the  vigor  of  the  parents  for  the  fertile  eggs 
instead  of  allowing  them  to  dissipate  some  in  producing  eggs 
for  eating.  Fowls  may  be  restrained  from  laying  by  feeding 
them  sparingly  of  a  ration  that  will  not  produce  fat  nor  hasten 
egg  production.  A  suitable  ration  for  such  purposes  may  be 
composed  of  large  pieces  of  hard  bread,  so  that  the  fowls  will 
have  to  pick  small  pieces,  and  a  small  quantity  of  wheat. 
The  restraining  of  the  fowls  from  laying  may  be  further  aided 
by  transferring  them  at  short  intervals  from  one  pen  to  another, 
by  feeding  them  Httle  or  no  green  feed,  no  meat  at  all,  and  by 
keeping  the  females  in  separate  pens  out  of  sight  of  the  males. 

4.  Importance  of  Activity. — To  maintain  the  vitality  of 
both  male  and  female  fowls,  it  is  necessary  that  they  be  active, 
and  in  order  to  insure  this  activity  they  should  have  plenty  of 
room  for  exercise  and  should  be  stimulated  to  exercise  by  com- 
pelling them  to  scratch  and  hunt  for  their  feed.  Fowls  that 
have  to  struggle  somewhat  for  an  existence  usually  lay  remark- 
ably fertile  eggs.  If,  xmder  such  circumstances,  the  proper 
kinds  of  feed  is  given  to  them  they  will  be  kept  in  good  flesh 
without  getting  too  fat.  This  is  the  best  physical  condition 
for  fowls  that  are  to  lay  eggs  for  hatching.  Fowls  that  are 
either  too  thin  or  too  fat  cannot  lay  satisfactorily. 

Because  of  the  restriction  on  their  activity,  fowls  for  exhi- 
bition should  not  be  confined  for  any  considerable  time  in 
small  peris  or   coops.     Exhibition   fowls  kept   constantly  in 


114   STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

small  coops  during  the  poultry-show  season  are  seldom,  if 
ever,  fit  to  do  well  in  the  breeding  pen  in  the  spring;  at  least 
they  wiU  not  be  fit  for  such  service  earHer  than  60  days  after 
they  have  been  released  from  such  confinement,  because  they 
do  not  regain  all  their  normal  vitality  before  that  length  of 
time,  and  they  will  need  that  vitality  when  mated  with  hens 
that  are  to  produce  eggs  for  hatching. 

Though  the  keeping  of  fowls  in  small  coops  will  help  to  con- 
dition them  for  the  show  pen,  it  is  possible  to  condition  them 
satisfactorily  without  confining  them  in  small  coops.  Con- 
ditioning may  be  done  to  better  advantage  in  small  compart- 
ments with  outside  runs.  When  such  enclosures  cannot  be 
provided,  the  fowls  should  in  some  way  be  forced  to  take  plenty 
of  exercise  during  the  time  of  preparing  them  for  the  show. 

Because  it  is  impossible  to  send  fowls  to  a  series  of  poultry 
shows  during  the  winter  season  without  lessening  their  vitality, 
due  to  an  unavoidable  lack  of  exercise  and  other  unfavorable 
conditions,  it  is  the .  best  policy  not  to  show  fowls  that  are 
intended  for  breeding.  Some  breeders  systematically  use  one 
group  of  fowls  for  exhibition  and  another  for  breeding.  How- 
ever, in  cases  where  the  fancier  is  compelled  to  show  his  best, 
he  must  not  expect  much  from  them  in  the  breeding  line 
during  the  early  spring  months,  and  should  see  to  it  that  they 
get  all  the  exercise  they  need  both  immediately  after  the  show 
season  and  throughout  the  breeding  season. 

5.     Influence   of   Management   in   the   Houses. — The 

method  of  management  in  the  houses  has  considerable  to  do 
with  the  general  health  of  fowls.  •  The  houses  should,  of  course, 
be  kept  clean  and  dry.  The  breeding  fowls  should  never  be  kept 
shut  up  in  houses;  they  shotdd  be  permitted  to  go  outside  in 
aU  kinds  of  weather  except  when  their  combs  or  wattles  will 
be  frozen,  and  day  and  night  there  should  be  plenty  of  fresh 
air  inside  of  the  house.  Though  the  houses  should  always  be 
warm  enough  at  night  so  that  the  fowls  will  be  comfortable 
on  their  roosts,  the  warmth  for  this  purpose  should  come  from 
the  bodies  of  the  fowls  rather  than  from  any  artificial  heat. 
This  may  be  accomplished  by  the  use  of  hooded  roosts  or 


§3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  115 

by  arranging  the  house  so  that  each  fowl  has  only  the  proper 
air  space  to  warm  up  with  its  body.  Fresh  air  can  be  secured 
through  a  musHn  front  on  the  house.  Artificial  heat  is  not 
beneficial  to  poultry,  because  houses  heated  in  this  way  are 
apt  to  be  damp,  and  because  in  cold  weather  there  will  be  too 
much  difference  between  the  inside  and  the  outside  temper- 
atures, and  when  the  fowls  run  out  of  a  warm  house  in  the  morn- 
ing they  will  be  suddenly  chilled  by  the  cold  air.  There  is  no 
best  temperature  for  the  interior  of  a  poultry  house  for  all 
times  of  the  year.  What  is  known  as  a  seasonable  tempera- 
ture will  be  best,  that  is,  one  that  will  be  in  proportion  to  the 
temperature  outside;  in  a  properly  constructed  and  managed 
poultry  house  such  a  temperature  can  be  maintained  entirely 
from  the  bodily  heat  of  the  fowls,  and  there  will  be  no  need 
to  resort  to  any  other  source  of  heat. 

6.  Influence  of  Age. — The  strongest  chicks  are  those  that 
come  from  well-matured  hens  in  their  second  or  third  year  of 
laying  and  that  have  not  laid  a  large  nimiber  of  eggs  during 
the  winter  months.  If  such  hens  are  properly  fed  they  will 
lay  good  medium-sized  eggs  that  will  contain  sufficient  albumen 
to  furnish  the  greatest  vitality  to  the  embryo  chick. 

Both  sexes,  if  properly  cared  for,  will  continue  to  produce 
until  4  or  5  years  old.  Hens  from  7  to  9  years  old  have  pro- 
duced offspring  of  the  finest  exhibition  qualities,  but  male 
fowls,  even  with  the  best  of  care,  cannot  be  depended  on  beyond 
the  fourth  year. 

7.  Effect  of  Dubbing. — It  is  a  practice  of  poultrymen,  in 
the  case  of  breeding  fowls  that  have  extraordinarily  large 
combs  and  wattles,  to  resort  to  what  is  called  dubbing,  which 
consists  in  cutting  off  the  greater  part  of  the  comb  and  wattles. 
After  the  wounds  have  healed  it  takes  much  less  blood  than 
formerly  to  support  what  is  left  of  the  comb  and  wattles,  and 
this  blood  will  give  an  increased  vitality  and  greater  egg- 
producing  power  to  the  fowls  so  treated. 

8.  Effect  of  Feather  Trimming. — In  the  case  of  fowls 
that  have  an  excessive  fluff  feathering  about  the  vent  and  on  the 
abdomen,  it  usually  increases  their  activity  and  egg-producing 


116  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

powers  to  trim  off  these  feathers  below  the  tail,  on  both  the 
males  and  the  females.  This  will  materially  increase  the 
chances  for  fertility. 

9.  Number  of  Hens  to  Mate  With.  One  Male. — The  num- 
ber of  hens  mated  with  one  male  has  an  influence  on  the  fer- 
tility of  the  eggs  and  on  the  vitality  of  the  offspring,  for  the 
reason  that  the  greater  the  number  of  females  the  more  the 
energy  of  the  male  is  divided  and  the  less  each  female  receives. 
As  a  general  rule,  therefore,  it  is  always  of  advantage  to  have 
but  few  females  with  a  male  in  mating  for  the  production  of 
exhibition  poidtry.  On  an  average,  in  the  case  of  Mediter- 
ranean breeds,  from  five  to  seven  females  is  the  proper  number 
to  mate  with  one  male;  and  in  the  case  of  the  larger  breeds, 
from  three  to  five  females  with  one  male.  The  nimiber  of 
females  best  suited  to  mating  with  any  one  male  can  be 
decided  most  accurately  only  after  the  results  from  a  mating 
are  known. 

10.  Changing  of  Males  Frequently. — The  practice  of 
frequently  changing  males  in  a  breeding  pen,  as,'  for  instance, 
using  two  males  and  changing  them  on  alternate  days  with  the 
same  females,  will  lead  to  an  increased  nimiber  of  fertile  eggs  and 
will  give  good  results  to  the  breeder  who  makes  a  business  of 
selling  eggs  for  hatching.  But  this  method  of  mating  has  its 
disadvantages  also.  It  makes  the  keeping  of  accurate  breeding 
records  very  difficult,  and  thus  complicates  the  work  of  the 
breeder.  Where  the  best  results  for  exhibition  are  sought 
after  it  is  better  to  have  a  few  hens  in  each  mating  with  one 
male  than  to  have  a  large  number  of  hens  dividing  their  time 
among  several  males. 

11.  Separation   of  Sexes    Out   of  Breeding    Season. 

Males  and  females  that  are  kept  for  producing  exhibition  fowls 
should  be  kept  apart  at  all  times  except  during  the  period  when 
the  eggs  are  saved  for  hatching.  There  are  many  advantages  in 
this  practice.  The  most  important  is  that  by  this  means 
any  eggs  that  are  sold  out  of  the  hatching  season  cannot  be 
hatched.  Other  advantages  are  that  there  will  be  less  danger 
of  broken  plumage,  less  danger  of  plumage  being  destroyed 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  117 

directly  after  the  molt,  and  more  likelihood  that  the  males 
will  be  able  to  finish  the  molt  in  better  form  than  if  they  were 
with  the  hens.  Females  will  frequently  pluck  the  new  plumage 
from  the  males  that  are  confined  with  them,  but  are  less  apt 
to  pluck  the  feathers  from  one  another.  The  habit  of  pluck- 
ing feathers  from  one  another,  however,  is  quickly  acquired 
after  they  once  begin  to  pick  feathers  from  the  males. 


NATUBAIi    VERSUS    ARTIFICIAI.     INCUBATION     AND    BROODING 

12.  The  methods  of  hatching  eggs  and  of  brooding  chicks 
for  the  purpose  of  producing  fowls  for  exhibition  or  for  develop- 
ing and  continmng  a  strain  of  exhibition  fowls  are  of  fimda- 
mental  importance,  and  hence  are  worthy  of  the  most  careful 
consideration.  Experience  has  proved  that  natural  incubation, 
or  hatching  with  hens,  is  the  most  satisfactory,  because  the 
mother  hen  surrotmds  her  eggs  with  a  natural  environment 
that  cannot  be  secured  in  artificial  incubation.  This  imparts 
to  chicks  greater  vitality  and  stronger  reproducing  qualities 
than  will  be  secured  by  the  artificial  method.  The  eggs  from 
inbred  stock,  particularly,  are  apt  to  produce  a  higher  per- 
centage of  chicks  and  stronger  chicks  when  incubated  naturally 
than  when  hatched  in  an  incubator. 

Although  the  best  results  are  obtained  by  natural  incubation, 
it  is  not  a  practical  proposition  for  the  great  majority  of  fan- 
ciers to  follow  this  method  for  hatching  all  of  their  chicks. 
This  is  because  they  have  to  be  well  matured  and  ready  to 
show  during  the  early  fall  and  winter  months.  To  meet  this 
requirement,  the  ch;cks  must  be  hatched,  in  most  localities, 
in  cold  weather,  and  as  very  few  hens  become  broody  in  such 
weather  and  the  chicks  do  not  develop  rapidly  enough  when 
brooded  naturally  in  cold  weather,  artificial  incubation  and 
brooding  are  necessary. 

The  main  use  that  the  average  fancier,  living  in  a  cold 
climate,  can  make  of  natural  incubation  is  for  the  production 
of  his  breeding  stock.  This  will  be  one  safeguard  in  main- 
taining the  greatest  possible  amount  of  vitality  and  fertility 
in  his  fowls.     In  all  localities  the  spring  is  the  ideal  time  for 


118  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

brooding  newly  hatched  chicks,  and  hence  the  best  time  for 
hatching  out  the  chicks  that  are  to  constitute  the  future  breed- 
ing stock  of  a  strain  is  at  this  season.  In  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere this  means  that  the  best  time  for  hatching  chicks  is 
from  the  beginning  of  March  to  the  end  of  June,  the  earher 
months  being  better  for  localities  where  the  spring '  comes 
early,  and  the  later  months  where  it  comes  later.  In  the 
southern  hemisphere  it  should,  of  course,  always  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  seasons  are  the  reverse  of  those  in  the  northern 
hemisphere. 

The  temperature  during  the  winter  months  is  not  always  a 
matter  of  latitude,  and  breeders  in  some  localities  have  advan- 
tages over  others  situated  at  approximately  equal  distances 
from  the  equator.  For  instance,  in  England  and  France  and 
in  some  other  localities,  there  is  less  severe  cold  weather  than 
is  usual  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States  and  in  Can- 
ada; hence,  in  the  mild  winters  of  England  and  France  there 
is  less  necessity  for  artificial  incubation  and  brooding  than 
there  is  in  the  United  States  and  in  Canada. 

Mild  weather  is  always  beneficial  to  the  growth  of  yoimg 
chicks.  They  will  grow  better  in  a  mild  climate  than  in  one 
that  is  either  very  hot  or  very  cold.  For  example,  Orpingtons 
will  grow  faster  and  mature  earlier  in  England  than  in  Canada, 
and  Pl3rmouth  Rocks  and  other  general-purpose  fowls  will 
grow  faster  and  mature  earlier  in  Tennessee  than  in  Massa- 
chusetts. The  environment  of  a  warm  climate,  though  it 
hastens  the  growth,  does  not  improve  the  quality  of  fowls. 
No  variety  of  fowls  will  do  so  well  in  tropical  countries  during 
the  periods  of  severe  heat  as  they  will  do  in  the  same  locality 
during  the  cooler  part  of  the  year. 


MANAGEMENT    IN    INCUBATION 

13.  The  custom  of  buying  eggs  for  hatching,  and,  more 
recently,  of  buying  day-old  chicks,  has  increased  rapidly,  and 
has  superseded  to  a  great  extent  the  custom  of  buying  fully 
developed  fowls  for  breeders.  The  beginner  in  poultry  breed- 
ing can  scarcely  do  better  than  to  obtain  eggs  from  some  trust- 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  119 

worthy  source.  Such  a  source  would  be  a  poultry  establish- 
ment where  fine  stock  is  kept  and  where  the  eggs  for  hatching 
that  are  to  be  sold  are  selected  with  as  much  care  as  those  for 
home  hatching.  The  purchaser  should  be  satisfied  if  he  is 
able  to  raise  to  maturity  two  or  three  fowls  of  good  quality 
from  a  single  sitting.  The  beginner  shotild  continue  to  buy 
and  hatch  eggs  until  he  has  become  fairly  familiar  with  exhi- 
bition quality.  After  he  reaches  this  point  it  will  be  safe  for 
him  to  sectu-e  fowls  of  the  highest  quality  obtainable,  and  to 
introduce  them  carefully  into  his  flock  as  previously  described. 

When  the  business  of  selling  day-old  chicks  of  standard- 
bred  poultry  becomes  better  estabHshed  among  fanciers,  it 
may  be  advisable  for  the  beginner  to  purchase  young  chicks, 
but  at  the  present  time,  when  endeavoring  to  secure  fowls  for 
breeding  stock,  the  safest  plan  is  to  buy  eggs  and  place  them 
under  a  broody  hen.  The  hen  should  hatch  out  and  also  brood 
the  chicks. 

It  is  never  safe  to  bring  eggs  from  a  distance  and  place  them 
in  an  incubator  tray  with  home-laid  eggs.  The  chances  are 
that  the  home-laid  eggs  will  hatch  out  many  hours  in  advance 
of  the  eggs  that  have  been  shipped,  and  that  the  latter  will 
hatch  poorly.  It  is  always  much  safer  to  entrust  a  dozen  or 
more  of  the  shipped  eggs  to  the  care  of  a  trusty  hen. 

14.  Cockerels  and  Pullets  for  Fall  Shove's . — Show  rules 
debar  all  chickens  hatched  prior  to  January  1  from  being  shown 
the  next  fall  and  winter  as  cockerels  or  pullets,  and,  as  it  is 
desirable  to  have  the  fowls  as  fully  matured  as  possible,  most 
fanciers  endeavor  to  have  their  first  chicks  hatched  as  soon 
as  possible  after  that  date.  To  accomplish  this  they  usually 
start  their  incubators  as  soon  after  December  12  as  eggs  fit 
for  hatching  can  be  secured.  Some  fanciers  arrange  their 
incubating  so  that  they  will  continue  to  get  new  chicks  every 
little  while  during  the  winter  and  spring  months,  in  order  to 
have  chickens  in  good  condition  for  exhibition  at  all  the  fall 
and  winter  shows.  Other  fanciers  go  still  farther  and  hatch 
out  chicks  artificially  every  month  ifi  the  year;  this  plan 
assures  them  of  having  fowls  fit  for  the  show  room  at  all  times. 


120  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

The  importance  of  hatching  chicks  out  as  soon  after  Jan- 
uary 1  as  possible  may  be  better  understood  if  the  length  of 
time  required  for  them  to  develop  into  good  show  cockerels 
and  pullets  is  understood.  In  the  Asiatic  class,  for  instance, 
the  males  should  be  more  than  9  months  old  and  the  females 
at  least  7  months  old  before  they  are  in  good  show  condition. 
Orpingtons,  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  Rhode  Island  Reds, 
and  others  of  the  general-purpose  breeds,  if  well  cared  for, 
will  probably  be  fit  for  showing  when  they  are  from  7  to 
8  months  old.  It  is  possible  to  have  the  smaller  breeds  in 
show  condition  in  from  6  to  7  months.  On  an  average,  how- 
ever, it  is  safer  to  allow  a  little  more  time  than  just  stated 
for  developing  chicks  of  any  of  the  breeds  into  good  show- 
room condition.  As  poultry  shows  begin  in  August  or  Sep- 
tember, it  can  be  plainly  seen  that  the  fanciers  must  get  their 
chicks  out  of  the  shell  early  in  January  and  take  the  best  of 
care  of  them.  In  a  cold  climate  it  will  also  be  necessary  for 
fanciers,  under  such  conditions,  to  depend  largely  on  artificial 
incubation  for  producing  their  early  chicks,  at  least. 

15.  NuTQber  of  Eggs  for  a  Sitting. — In  the  natural  incu- 
bation of  eggs  intended  to  produce  fowls  for  exhibition,  and 
especially  in  cases  where  high-priced  eggs  are  purchased,  not 
more  than  seven  or  nine  eggs  should  be  placed  under  one  hen. 
A  sitting  of  thirteen  or  fifteen  eggs  should  be  divided  between 
two  hens.  Placing  such  a  small  number  of  eggs  under  each 
hen  insures  a  more  even  temperature  to  all  the  eggs,  and  hence 
better  chicks. 

16.  Time  for  Buying  Eggs  for  Hatching. — The  best 
time  to  buy  eggs  for  hatching  is  during  the  mild  weather  of  the 
spring.  It  is  not  advisable  to  purchase  eggs  for  hatching 
during  cold  weather,  because  eggs  laid  during  January,  Feb- 
ruary, and  March  are  not  likely  to  produce  more  than  three 
living  chicks  from  nine  eggs,  though  those  laid  later  in  the 
spring,  if  they  come  from  good  stock,  will  most  probably  pro- 
duce five  living  chicks  from  nine  eggs. 

Fertility  improves  gradually  from  January  to  July  and  then 
gradually  declines  from  July  to  the  end  of  the  year. 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  121 


BROODING 

17.  In  order  to  become  best  suited  for  exhibition  purposes, 
a  fowl  must  be  developed  quickly  from  shell  to  maturity. 
The  least  neglect  at  any  point  may  partly  stunt  or  delay  the 
growth  of  the  young  chick,  and  when  this  occtirs  the  chances 
for  developing  a  valuable  exhibition  fowl  will  be  greatly  les- 
sened. Hence,  to  prevent  the  occurrence  of  any  check  it  is 
necessary  to  give  the  fowl  constant  care  from  the  hour  of 
hatching  until  it  is  sent  to  the  show  room.  To  develop  to 
the  best  advantage,  chicks  must  have  plenty  of  room,  fresh 
air,  sunshine,  and  shade,  and  their  coops  and  surroundings 
must  be  kept  clean  and  sanitary. 

As  mentioned  before,  it  will  be  necessary  for  the  fancier  to 
practice  artificial  brooding  to  a  certain  extent  in  all  localities; 
in  localities  where  the  winters  are  cold  artificial  brooding  wiU 
have  to  be  employed  for  raising  practically  all  the  chicks. 
To  secure  satisfactory  results  with  this  method,  however, 
care  and  judgment  must  be  exercised,  for  in  cold  weather  the 
vitality  of  chicks  is  apt  to  be  low.  The  necessity  for  such  care 
is  emphasized  in  the  brooding  of  poultry  for  the  show  room, 
for  the  reason  that  chicks  from  such  poultry  are  very  often 
deficient  in  vitality,  and  because  they  must  make  a  rapid  and 
unchecked  growth. 

To  secure  the  best  results  in  artificially  brooding  chicks 
for  exhibition,  the  poultryman  should  see  that  there  is  plenty 
of  fresh  air  and  still  plenty  of  warmth  for  the  chicks  in  the 
brooders,  but  the  brooder  must  not  be  so  warm  that  the  chicks 
will  be  chilled  when  they  run  out  into  the  outside  air.  The 
air  under  the  hover  should  always  be  of  an  eVen  temperature, 
and  the  heat  at  no  time  should  exceed  95°  F.  This  tem- 
perature should  be  maintained  under  the  hover  for  the  first 
week,  or  in  some  cases  not  quite  that  long.  After  the  first 
week  the  temperature  should  be  reduced  one  degree  each  day 
until  a  temperature  of  80°  F.  is  reached.  Outside  of  the  hover 
the  temperature  of  the  air  should  be  kept  at  70°  F.  This  tem- 
perature may  be  continued  until  chicks  are  two  or  three  weeks 
old;  it  can  then  be  lowered  to  60°  F. 


122   STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

Though  artificial  brooding  must  be  the  mainstay  of  the 
fancier  in  most  places,  he  should  always  practice  natural 
brooding  to  some  extent,  for  the  reason  that  the  chicks  that 
are  hatched  out  and  brooded  by  hens  are  apt  to  be  the  best 
of  the  year.  They  are  almost  certain  to  have  greater  vitality 
and  exhibit  more  vigor  than  the  average  chicks  hatched  and 
brooded  artificially.  If  they  are  brooded  naturally  on  a  san- 
itary range  they  mil  also  be  certain  to  have  better  size,  health, 
and  plimiage  than  those  that  are  raised  under  less  favorable 
conditions. 

In  both  artificial  and  natural  brooding,  crowding  of  the 
chicks  must  be  avoided  at  all  times.  Too  many  chicks  in  a 
brooder  make  the  air  foul,  the  temperature  and  the  humidity 
too  high,  the  place  more  unsanitary  and  difficult  to  keep  clean, 
and  the  general  conditions  less  healthful.  Too  many  chicks 
with  a  hen  will  prevent  all  of  them  from  receiving  the  proper 
shelter  under  her  body  and  will  keep  them  in  a  continual 
condition  of  unrest,  because  of  their  struggles  to  obtain  more 
favorable  positions.  Because  of  these  reasons  a  brooder  built 
for  fifty  chicks  will  be  suitable  for  thirty  chicks  intended  for 
exhibition,  and  a  hen  that  can  brood  fifteen  chicks  during 
warm  weather  will  not  be  able  to  take  as  good  care  of  more 
than  nine  during  cool  or  cold  weather.  A  coop  that  is  large 
enough  for  two  hens  and  their  broods  during  cold  weather 
will  be  none  too  large  for  one  hen  and  her  brood  when  the 
weather  is  warm. 


§3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT   123 


FEEDING  OF  EXHIBITION  POULTRY 


FEEDS  FOR  EXHIBITION  POULTRY 

18.  Exhibition  poultry,  as  a  rule,  should  have  nothing  but 
simple,  clean,  and  readily  digestible  feeds.  Hard,  dry  grains 
such  as  wheat,  oats,  cracked  com,  barley,  and  buckwheat, 
combined  with  green  feed,  should  form  the  principal  part  of 
their  diet. 

The  least  desirable  grain  of  all  is  light-weight  oats,  which 
are  largely  husks  and  of  but  little  feeding  value.  Buckwheat 
more  than  a  year  old  may,  by  shrinkage,  have  lost  much  of  its 
feeding  value.  The  very  best  that  can  be  had  is  none  too 
good  for  producing  the  best  results.  Mixtures  of  shriveled, 
shnmken,  or  poorly  developed  grains  should  not  be  fed. 

Animal  food  of  some  kind  is  thought  to  be  absolutely  neces- 
sary for  a  plentiful  egg  production,  but  it  is  questionable 
whether  it  is  of  benefit  when  fed  freely  to  the  fowls  used  for 
breeding  purposes.  Buttermilk  used  to  moisten  mash  is  one 
of  the  best,  if  not  the  very  best,  kinds  of  animal  foods  for 
breeding  stock.  Sour  skim-milk  will  answer  for  poultry  almost 
as  well  as  buttermilk,  and  milk,  either  sweet  or  sour,  is  always 
best  for  moistening  mash  feed. 

Mangels,  turnips,  cabbage,  clover,  and  alfalfa  hay,  and  roots 
generally  are  suitable  green  feeds  for  feeding  in  winter  to 
exhibition  fowls.  Cabbage  and  turnips  have  a  tendency  to 
flavor  the  eggs,  but  this  will  not  matter  when  the  eggs  are  all 
used  for  hatching.  The  leaves  from  clover  and  alfalfa  hay  are 
among  the  very  best  of  the  green  feeds  for  winter  feeding. 
Fifty  hens  will  eat  a  peck  or  more  of  this  feed  each  day. 

A  plentiful  supply  of  fresh  water  at  all  times  is  essential 
for  fowls,  because  without  it  they  can  neither  properly  digest 
their  food  nor  lay  eggs.  Whether  or  not  it  is  advisable  to  give 
exhibition  fowls  warm  water  during  the  winter  is  a  matter 


124  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

that  can  best  be  decided  by  each  individual  fancier.  If  given 
to  fowls  at  all  it  should  be  given  every  morning;  fowls  should 
not  have  warm  water  one  day  and  cold  water  the  next;  the 
water  should  be  warm,  and  not  boiling  hot. 

Grit,  and  shell-forming  material,  such  as  oyster  shells,  old 
plaster,  and  finely  broken  limestone  grit,  should  be  kept  before 
the  hens  at  all  times,  so  that  they  may  help  themselves  when 
they  want  it.  Charcoal  is  also  beneficial.  The  feeding  of  dry 
mash  in  hoppers  from  which  the  fowls  can  help  themselves  wiU 
be  beneficial.  

METHODS  OF  FEEDING 

19.  During  the  winter  months  all  grain  for  exhibition  fowls 
should  be  thrown  into  the  litter  of  the  houses,  where  the 
fowls  will  have  to  scratch  to  get  it.  Feeding  them  in  this 
way  three  times  a  day  is  advisable,  because  it  induces  them 
to  take  considerable  exercise.  Mash  feed  can  usually  be  fed 
most  conveniently  at  noon.  When  only  a  few  fowls  are  kept, 
all  scraps  from  the  table  should  be  cut  up  very  fine,  cooked, 
and  mixed,  until  the  mass  is  very  dry,  with  wheat  bran,  mid- 
dlings, or  ground  oats.  This  mixture  makes  an  excellent 
feed  for  poultry,  and  when  it  is  used  no  other  mash  feed  will 
be  needed. 

Green  feeds  of  some  kind  should  be  fed  daily  to  fowls  that 
do  not  have  their  freedom  on  a  range  where  they  can  pick 
up  for  themselves  all  the  green  feed  they  need. 

20.  Feeding  to  Flesh  Fowls  for  Exhibition. — In  cases 
where  fowls  intended  for  exhibition  do  not  have  sufficient  flesh 
on  their  bodies  to  make  them  appear  to  best  advantage  in  a 
show,  their  weight  may  be  increased  and  their  lines  filled  out  by 
feeding  them  a  ration  of  com  bread  and  boiled  rice,  sweetened 
to  taste  with  black  molasses,  in  connection  with  dry  feed  from 
the  hopper. 

The  com  bread  should  be  made  the  same  as  for  table  use, 
and,  if  it  is  to  be  fed  to  white-plimiaged  fowls,  white  com  meal 
should  be  used;  the  rice  should  be  boiled  in  either  water  or 
milk  until  fairly  dry  and  then  sweetened  to  taste  with  black 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  125 

molasses.  Equal  parts  of  com  bread  and  rice  should  be 
mixed  together,  the  com  bread  being  crumbled  up  so  as  to 
make  a  better  mixture.  About  2  ounces  of  this  ration  should 
be  fed  to  each  fowl  both  night  and  morning,  and  in  addition 
the  fowls  should  be  allowed  to  eat  whatever  else  they  may  need 
from  hoppers  containing  cracked  corn,  whole  wheat,  and  a 
small  quantity  of  lean  meat  scrap. 

When  being  fed  to  fowls  with  dark  plumage,  a  little  tincture 
of  iron  or  a  little  sulphur  may  with  benefit  be  added  to  the 
com  bread  and  rice  ration  for  a  week.  The  tincture  of  iron 
should  be  mixed  with  the  ration  in  the  proportion  of  about 
five  drops  for  each  fowl  both  night  and  morning.  Instead  of 
the  tinctiu-e  of  iron  a  pinch  of  sulphur  may  be  added  to  one 
feed  of  the  ration  every  other  day  for  each  fowl.  Neither  of 
these  substances  should  be  added  to  the  ration  if  it  is  to  be 
fed  to  the  fowls  with  white  or  buff-colored  plumage. 

21.  Feeding    to    Stimulate    Feather    Growtli. — The 

growth  of  the  feathers  can  always  be  stimulated  by  giving  feed  of 
a  nitrogeneous  character,  such  as  bone  meal,  lean  meat,  and 
small  quantities  of  flaxseed  meal.  This  kind  of  feed  will, 
however,  also  tend  to  increase  the  size  of  the  combs,  wattles, 
and  ear  lobes,  and  hence  when  such  feeds  are  given  their  effect 
on  the  fowls  should  be  carefully  watched. 

22.  Feeding  of  White -Plumaged  Fowls. — Great  care 
should  be  exercised  in  feeding  white-plumaged  fowls,  because 
very  little  coloring  matter  in  a  feed  will  injure  the  whiteness  of 
their  plumage.  Such  materials  as  iron,  sulphur,  and  yellow  com 
shoiild  never  be  fed  to  white  fowls  during  the  molting  period, 
as  they  are  likely  to  produce  undesirable  effects  on  the  feathers. 

Some  fanciers  prefer  to  feed  their  white-pltmiaged  exhi- 
bition fowls  no  grain  except  whole,  ground,  or  hulled  oats. 
Other  suitable  grain  feeds  for  such  fowls  are  white  corn,  white 
wheat,  pearl  barley,  and  a  dry  mash  composed  by  measure  of 
equal  parts  of  ground  oats  and  wheat  middlings  to  which  is 
added  about  10  per  cent,  of  the  whole  quantity  of  gluten  meal. 

23.  Modification  of  Plumage  Color  by  Feeding. — The 

feeding  of  various  materials  in  an  attempt  to  improve  or  change 


126  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

the  plumage  color  of  fowls,  commonly  called  color  feeding, 

has  met  with  indifferent  success.  The  argtiment  in  favor  of 
such  feeding  is  that  many  of  the  beautifully  plumaged  birds  of 
the  tropics  lose  much  of  their  color  and  luster  when  removed 
from  their  natural  feeding  grounds.  Hence,  some  poultrymen 
claim  that  the  fruits,  seeds,  plants,  bugs,  etc.,  eaten  by  these 
fowls  in  their  native  haunts  have  an  influence  over  the  color 
and  luster  of  their  feathers.  However  true  this  may  be,  experi- 
ments by  persons  competent  to  judge  have  shown  that  the 
feeding  of  various  materials  to  domestic  fowls  has  failed  to 
improve  the  color  of  their  plumage. 

A  tasteless  red  pepper  that  lacks  the  hot  properties  of  cay- 
enne pepper  may  be  fed  to  poultry  for  the  purpose  of  modify- 
ing their  plumage  color.  Several  kinds  of  this  tasteless  red 
pepper  are  offered  for  sale  by  the  poultry  supply  houses  of 
London. 

Color  feeding  with  this  pepper  has  been  tried  many  times 
in  an  effort  to  improve  the  shade  of  color  in  buff  fowls,  but 
it  has  not  yet  been  very  successful.  The  nearest  approach  to 
success  in  feeding  this  to  buff  fowls  has  been  shown  in  some- 
times turning  the  buff  plumage  to  a  reddish-buff  color  after  the 
feathers  were  fully  grown,  but  in  most  instances  when  the  taste- 
less red  pepper  was  fed  dtuing  the  molting  period  the  feathers 
assumed  a  mottled  appearance. 

Tasteless  red  pepper  is  fed  to  canary  birds  to  improve  or 
change  their  plumage  color.  It  usually  has  the  effect  of  chan- 
ging light  buff,  or  canary  color,  to  a  deeper  tint.  This  pepper 
also  produces  a  similar  effect  on  the  plumage  of  many  kinds 
of  cage  birds  to  which  it  is  fed  during  the  entire  molting  period. 
It  has,  however,  generally  failed  to  change  the  plimiage  color 
of  pigeons,  bantams,  and  other  poultry. 

The  feeding  of  cayenne  pepper  to  fowls  for  the  purpose  of 
reddening  their  plumage  has  also  been  tried.  Lewis  Wright 
records  an  experiment  by  Doctor  Sauermann  in  which  cayenne 
pepper  was  fed  to  twelve  White  Leghorns,  but  only  two  of  the 
fowls  showed  any  effects  from  the  treatment.  Within  10  days 
after  the  feeding  was  begun  the  plumage  of  these  two  turned 
red  in  the  breast  and  hackle;  the  body  feathers  showed  much 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  127 

less  red,  and  the  flight  and  tail  feathers  remained  white.  The 
change  of  color  occurred  only  on  the  surface  of  the  feathers. 
The  second  season  cayenne  pepper  was  again  fed  to  the  same 
two  fowls,  and  a  duller  reddish-brown  color  developed  in  the 
parts  that  had  been  colored  the  previous  season.  The  color 
of  the  legs  and  feet  were  also  changed  to  an  orange  red,  and  the 
yolks  of  the  eggs  laid  by  the  fowls  were  red.  After  the  fowls 
were  killed  the  influence  of  the  coloring  was  seen  in  their  fatty 
parts.  The  most  notable  part  of  this  experiment  was  that  it 
showed  the  peculiar  susceptibility  of  certain  individuals  to  the 
influence  of  the  pepper,  because  out  of  the  twelve  fowls  treated 
only  two  showed  any  effects. 

The  feeding  of  various  aniline  dyes  to  canary  birds  was  tried 
in  an  experimental  way  many  years  ago.  When  these  dyes 
were  given  to  the  birds  in  water,  only  a  few  were  affected,  and 
these  only  slightly,  and  the  change  in  color  was  permanent  in 
only  a  part  of  the  feathers.  Then  the  aniline  dyes  were  fed  to 
the  canaries  in  different  combinations  with  various  oils  and 
fats,  but  the  birds  to  which  the  colored  oils  were  fed  did  not 
molt,  so  that  this  did  not  prove  satisfactory. 

Since  that  time,  however,  bird  fanciers  have  become  so 
expert  in  the  feeding  of  the  tasteless  red  pepper  that  they  are 
able  to  change  the  shade  of  every  feather  on  the  body  of  a 
canary  bird  to  a  rich  golden,  a  coppery,  or  a  reddish  tint,  as 
preferred,  the  shade  of  the  color  depending  on  the  quantity  of 
material  and  the  length  of  time  it  is  fed. 

24.  Feeding  of  Condiments. — The  feeding  of  condi- 
ments, or  tonics,  to  poultry  is  a  common  practice  of  some  fan- 
ciers, and  some  of  these  mixtures  contain'  stimulants  that  so 
excite  the  organs  of  reproduction  as  sometimes  to  rupture  them. 
The  frequent  use  of  such  drugs  is  very  inadvisable,  as  nothing  is 
more  certain  to  undermine  the  constitution  and  shorten  the 
life  of  fowls.  The  occasional  use  of  simple  tonics  for  the  pur- 
pose of  stimulating  a  system  that  has  become  inactive  from 
cold  or  other  causes  may  be  beneficial,  but  the  use  of  stimulants 
to  improve  the  failing  vitality  of  fowls  intended  for  exhibition 
cannot  be  fruitful  of  good  results. 


128   STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

A  simple  tonic  that  may  be  safely  used  to  counteract  the 
effect  of  cold,  to  stimulate  a  dormant  system,  or  to  sharpen  a 
faiHng  appetite  may  be  made  of  the  following  materials,  each 
ingredient  being  ground  into  a  very  fine  powder  and  all  then 
mixed  together:  Cayenne  pepper,  2  otmces;  ginger,  5  ounces; 
Peruvian  bark,  2  oimces;  cinnamon,  3  oimces;  red  carbonate 
of  iron,  4  ounces. 

A  stroked  teaspoonful  of  this  tonic  will  be  sufficient  for  a 
dose  for  a  dozen  fowls.  This  quantity,  mixed  with  stale  bread 
that  has  been  previously  softened  with  sweet  milk  and  pressed 
with  the  hands  until  thoroughly  dry,  should  be  fed  twice  a  day. 
When  given  to  fowls  that  are  suffering  with  a  cold,  a  teaspoon- 
ful of  spirits  of  camphor  may  be  mixed  in  with  the  bread  that 
is  fed  to  each  dozen  fowls. 

When  feeding  this  tonic  to  white-plimiaged  fowls,  the  red 
carbonate  of  iron  should  be  omitted,  for  iron  in  any  form,  espe- 
cially during  the  period  of  molt,  is  apt  to  discolor  the  plumage. 
When  fed  to  dark-plumaged  fowls,  however,  the  iron  should 
be  left  in,  as  it  will  improve  their  color. 

25.  Feeding  to  Increase  Gloss  of  Plumage. — ^A  rich  fin- 
ish, or  glossy  appearance,  may  be  imparted  to  the  plumage  of 
fowls  by  feeding  to  them  small  quantities  of  a  jelly  made  from 
linseed,  or  flaxseed.  In  the  preparation  of  linseed  jelly,  it  is 
convenient  to  place  the  linseed  in  a  saucepan  in  the  proportion 
of  about  4  oimces  of  linseed  to  1  pint  of  water.  It  should  be 
brought  gently  to  a  boil,  and  then  stood  on  a  cooler  part  of  the 
stove  and  allowed  to  simmer  gently  for  an  hour  or  two.  When 
properly  made,  the  linseed  jelly  should  be  thick  and  stringy  when 
dripped  from  a  spoon.  The  hnseed  husks  should  be  removed 
by  straining  through  a  cloth,  and  the  jelly  allowed  to  cool. 

A  teaspoonful  of  this  jelly  mixed  with  bread  crumbs  may  be 
fed  to  each  fowl  twice  a  day  for  several  days,  and  about  a 
dozen  hemp  seed  may  with  advantage  be  added  to  the  mixttire; 
if  the  mixture  is  to  be  fed  to  dark-plumaged  fowls,  about  five 
drops  of  tincture  of  iron  for  each  fowl  may  be  added,  but  the 
tincture  of  iron  should  not  be  added  if  the  fowls  have  white  or 
buff  plumage. 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT   1.29 

The  best  results  will  be  obtained  if  this  feed  is  given  to  fowls 
during  the  period  of  molt,  but  they  must  be  carefully  watched 
while  being  fed  on  this  diet,  as  the  flaxseed  jelly  may  loosen 
their  bowels.  If  this  occurs,  the  feeding  of  the  jelly  should  be 
discontinued  at  once. 

26.  Feeding  to  Improve  Head  Parts. — Hens  and  pullets 
intended  for  exhibition  will  frequently  be  foimd  to  have  a 
deficient  development  of  comb,  and  the  comb,  face,  wattles, 
and  ear  lobes  will  be  of  a  light  shade  of  color.  These  undesir- 
able conditions  may  usually  be  greatly  improved  by  feeding  to 
the  fowls  with  their  regular  daily  ration  a  small  quantity  of 
green  cut  bone  seasoned  with  paprika.  About  |  ounce  of  the 
green  cut  bone  should  be  fed  to  each  fowl.  This,  however, 
may  loosen  the  bowels,  and  for  this  reason  it  should  be  fed  only 
when  the  fowls  can  be  carefully  watched. 

Though  such  feeding  will  develop  the  comb,  wattles,  and  ear 
lobes  and  impart  a  rich  red  color  to  them,  it  may,  if  carried  on 
too  long,  force  an  overdevelopment  in  these  parts.  For  this 
reason,  as  soon  as  the  improvement  begins  to  show,  the  fowls 
should  be  removed  to  cooler  quarters  and  the  giving  of  the 
stimulating  feed  should  cease.  This  sudden  change  will  not 
check  the  improvement  as  soon  as  made,  as  the  effect  of  the 
feed  will  remain  in  the  system  of  the  fowl  for  some  time,  but 
it  will  prevent  an  excessive  stimulation. 


130  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 


PREPARATION  OF  FOWLS  FOR  THE 
SHOW  ROOM 


SELECTION  OF  FOWLS  FOR  EXHIBITION 

27.  To  be  a  successful  exhibitor,  it  is  necessary  for  a  per- 
son to  possess  the  ability.  (1)  to  pick  out,  while  they  are  still 
immature,  the  chicks  that  possess  quality;  (2)  to  detect  the 
first  evidences  of  defects  or  deformities  of  any  kind;  and  (3)  to 
select  the  best  fowls  at  maturity. 

The  most  successftd  fanciers  are  those  who  are  able  closely 
to  cull  their  flocks  as  they  grow  and  develop,  weeding  out  those 
that  are  inferior  and  making  room  for  those  of  the  greatest 
value.  Such  ability  can  be  obtained  only  by  long  experience. 
The  beginner  should  not  trust  to  his  own  judgment  until  after 
he  has  had  considerable  experience,  or  has  had  the  opportunity 
of  watching  an  experienced  and  successful  breeder  cull  his 
chicks  a  number  of  times.  The  novice  should  be  particularly 
careful  about  discarding  half -grown  chicks  on  account  of  appar- 
ent defects. 

The  novice  in  exhibition-poultry  breeding  is  frequently  dis- 
heartened by  a  series  of  defeats  in  the  show  room,  where  he 
has  been  compelled  to  compete  against  experienced  fanciers. 
There  is,  however,  no  good  reason  for  his  becoming  disheart- 
ened. He  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  success  of  the  older  fan- 
ciers has  been  earned  as  a  result  of  many  years  of  constant 
care  and  labor,  of  selecting  fowls  for  exhibition,  and  of  experi- 
ence in  showing  fowls  in  perfect  condition.  Only  by  patient 
work  can  the  novice  hope  to  compete  on  equal  terms  with  the 
fancier  who  has  had  years  of  experience  and  success  and  has 
had  the  time  and  ability  to  build  up  a  valuable  strain. 

28.  All  chicks  with  deformities,  such  as  badly  shaped 
combs,  shanks  of  bad  color,  crooked  toes,  etc.,  should  be  dis- 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  131 

carded  when  young;  to  do  this  without  making  mistakes  it  is 
necessary  for  a  poultryman  to  be  familiar  with  the  changes 
that  various  apparent  deformities  in  chicks  undergo  as  they 
develop  and  approach  maturity. 

The  most  common  change  that  occurs  in  fowls  when  passing 
from  the  chick  stage  to  maturity  is  the  change  in  the  color  of 
the  shanks  and  feet  and  of  the  plumage.  In  some  varieties, 
for  instance,  the  color  of  the  shanks  and  feet  changes  materi- 
ally from  the  chick  to  the  matiu-e  stage.  Some  white-plimiaged 
fowls  will  show  dark  in  the  pltimage  of  the  chick  feathers  and 
will  have  greenish-colored  shanks  up  to  the  time  when  they 
change  the  chick  feathers  for  mature  plumage.  In  some  fowls, 
the  shanks  and  beaks  that  are  overcast  with  green  during  the 
early  stages  of  the  chick's  existence  become  the  most  perfectly 
colored  shanks  and  beaks  in  the  mature  fowls.  Fowls  that 
have  black  or  dark-colored  shanks  when  mature  may  have 
shanks  of  a  slaty-gray  color  as  chicks,  and  change  gradually 
to  the  proper  color  as  they  grow  older.  Chicks  that  should 
have  yellow-colored  shanks  may  have  very  pale  yellow  shanks, 
but  such  shanks  may  be  materially  brightened  and  frequently 
changed  to  a  golden  yellow  by  turning  the  chicks  loose  on  a 
range  of  grass  and  clover. 

As  just  mentioned,  white-plumaged  fowls  may  have  dark 
feathers  as  chicks  but  shed  these  and  replace  them  with  white 
feathers  when  the  adult  growth  is  taken  pn.  Biiff-plumaged 
chicks  may  have  both  white  and  black  feathers  in  their  plumage 
during  the  earlier  stages  of  growth  and  then  drop  them  for  cor- 
rectly colored  feathers  as  they  grow  to  matinity.  Barred 
Plymouth  Rocks,  Laced  or  Penciled  Wyandottes,  and  other 
varieties  that  have  the  same  colors  in  their  plumage,  may  have 
a  very  undesirable  plumage  color  as  chicks,  and  then  change 
to  the  proper  color  as  the  chicks  develop  to  full-grown  fowls. 

29.  To  be  competent  to  select  the  best  mature  fowls  from 
his  own  flock,  a  fancier  must  be  free  from  personal  preferences, 
must  have  a  full  knowledge  of  standard  requirements,  and 
must  have  the  ability  to  apply  skilfully  the  knowledge  that 
he  has.     This  means  that  the  fancier  must  be  particularly 


132  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

familiar  with  all  of  the  fine  points  of  the  variety  from  which  he 
is  making  his  selections.  The  better  fitted  a  person  is  to  judge 
fowls  in  the  show  room,  natiirally  the  better  fitted  he  will  be 
to  select  the  fowls  from  his  own  flock  that  will  stand  the  best 
chance  of  winning  prizes. 

Size,  shape,  and  color  are  the  three  main  factors  that  must 
be  considered  when  selecting  fowls  for  the  show  room.  Size 
must  be  considered  both  from  the  standpoint  of  weight  and  of 
body  formation.  A  fowl,  for  instance,  may  be  found  to  be 
overweight  when  placed  on  the  scales,  but  may  yet  not  have 
the  proper  measurements  to  appear  symmetrical.  To  be  of 
the  correct  size,  a  fowl  must  not  only  be  large  and  heavy  enough 
for  the  breed,  but  it  must  be  of  the  right  size  to  conform  to  its 
own  proportions. 

For  a  fowl  to  be  of  proper  shape,  each  and  every  section  of  it 
must  conform  to  the  standard  description,  and  the  sections 
must  be  so  proportioned  one  to  the  other  that  the  fowl  appears 
to  be  symmetrical.  Size  and  shape  must  be  companions  in 
body  formation,  for  if  a  fowl  is  lacking  in  either  particular  it 
will  not  be  symmetrical  and  will  have  to  be  marked  down  for 
the  defects. 

The  color  requirements  for  each  variety  are  given  where 
each  variety  is  described,  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  make  much 
comment  on  this  point  here.  It  should,  however,  be  carefully 
borne  in  mind  that  the  standard  description  for  any  color 
describes  the  only  correct  color  or  colors  for  that  variety,  and 
that  any  deviations  from  that  shade  of  color  will  coimt  against 
a  fowl.  It  may  seem  superfluous  to  make  this  statement,  but 
it  is  made  because  so  many  fanciers  do  not  seem  to  appreciate 
the  value  of  exact  shades  of  color.  When  the  standard  descrip- 
tion states  that  the  plumage  should  be  white,  this  means  a 
pure  white,  not  a  creamy  or  yellowish  white;  buff  should  be  a 
golden  buff,  and  no  other  color  is  correct ;  red  for  Rhode  Island 
Reds  is  a  rich  cherry  red,  not  a  yellowish  red  or  any  other  shade 
of  red;  many  other  similar  examples  might  be  mentioned. 

30.  Immediately  before  sending  a  lot  of  fowls  away  to  a 
show  room,  a  general  survey  should  be  made  of  the  entire  lot 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  133 

of  exhibition  poultry,  and  the  best  selected  and  carefully  exam- 
ined to  discover  their  weak  points.  None  but  fowls  of  the  best 
quality  should  ever  be  sent  away  to  an  exhibition  hall,  because 
no  other  fowls  will  have  even  a  chance  of  winning,  and  the 
exhibitor  can  gain  nothing  but  an  undesirable  reputation  by 
having  fowls  of  poor  quality  in  the  show  room. 

It  is  usually  a  good  practice  to  select  one  or  two  extra  fowls 
to  go  along  with  the  fowls  that  have  been  selected  for  the  exhi- 
bition, in  order  that  there  may  be  some  to  take  the  place  of 
those  that  may  become  unfit  during  the  journey  for  showing. 

To  be  in  the  best  condition  for  exhibition,  not  only  the  shape, 
size,  color,  and  markings  should  be  perfect  but  the  fowls  must 
be  in  perfect  health.  Perfect  health  is  necessary  in  exhibition 
poultry,  because  this  alone  promotes  the  growth  of  beautiful 
plimiage,  fills  out  all  the  muscles  and  tissues  so  as  to  round  out 
the  form  of  the  fowl  into  the  proper  contour,  imparts  a  gloss,  or 
sheen,  to  the  plumage,  and  brings  out  the  rich  blood-red  color 
of  the  comb,  face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes,  and  the  bright  flash- 
ing eye  that  is  so  important  in  the  exhibition  pen. 

The  best  evidence  of  the  success  of  any  method  of  raising 
poultry  is  in  the  degree  of  health  and  vigor  present  in  the  pro- 
ducing fowls  and  in  their  offspring. 

Hens  and  pullets  never  appear  to  better  advantage  than  just 
before  they  begin  to  lay,  because  after  they  begin  to  lay  the 
bloom  of  beauty  and  the  finer  exhibition  qualities  are  quickly 
lost.  When  females  begin  to  turn  red  in  the  face  it  is  a  sign 
of  the  near  approach  of  their  laying  period;  if  at  this  time  they 
are  transferred  frequently  from  pen  to  pen  and  a  ration  that  is 
not  an  egg-laying  ration  is  fed  to  them,  the  period  when  they 
are  at  their  best  just  prior  to  laying  may  be  considerably 
prolonged.  

DEFOKMITIES— THEIR  CAUSES  AND   AVOIDANCE 

31.  Deformities  of  all  kinds  should  be  weeded  out  by  sys- 
tematically culling  and  selling  for  market  all  afflicted  fowls. 
No  fowl  having  bone  or  feather  deformities  of  any  kind  should 
be  retained  in  a  breeding  flock.  Crooked  backs,  spines,  breasts, 
thighs,  and  shank  bones  are  all  deformities  that  will  coimt 


134  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

against  quality  in  the  offspring,  and,  since  such  defects  are 
strongly  hereditary,  no  chances  should  be  taken.  Even  strong 
proof  that  a  deformity  resulted  from  an  accident  should  not 
be  sufficient  reason  for  retaining  a  deformed  fowl  in  the  breed- 
ing pen.  Medical  authorities  consider  malformation  as  an 
evidence  of  a  weak  constitution,  and  for  this  reason,  if  for  no 
other,  any  bodily  defect  should  debar  a  fowl  from  considera- 
tion in  the  exhibition  pen.  The  breeder  should  not  be  misled 
into  thinking  that  any  correction  of  a  deformity  in  a  parent 
fowl  will  remove  the  possibility  of  that  deformity  being  trans- 
mitted to  its  offspring.  It  is,  for  instance,  sometimes  possible 
to  correct  twisted  feathers  in  an  otherwise  very  desirable  fowl, 
but  this  does  not  remove  the  cause  of  the  twisted  feathers,  and 
the  breeding  danger  still  remains. 

The  most  common  deformities  in  poultry  are  crooked  breast- 
bones, twisted  toes,  crooked  legs,  wry  tails,  and  slipped  wings. 
A  crooked  breastbone  will  often  be  caused  by  the  roosting  of  a 
fowl  while  the  bone  is  still  soft,  the  weight  of  the  body  bending 
the  breastbone  over  as  it  rests  on  the  roost.  If  this  is  con- 
tinued night  after  night,  the  deformity  will  become  perma- 
nent. Round  indentions  may  be  made  in  breastbones  in  the 
same  manner,  although  this  deformity  does  not  twist  the  bone 
to  either  side.  When  a  chick  is  born  with  a  natiirally  deformed 
breastbone,  the  entire  bone  is  twisted  out  of  shape.  Natural 
deformities,  of  course,  cannot  be  avoided,  but  deformities  due 
to  roosting  while  too  yoiuig  may  be  avoided  by  compelling  the 
chicks  to  rest  at  night  on  straw  on  the  floor.  It  is  impossible 
to  teU  by  examination  whether  a  crooked  breastbone  in  a  fowl 
is  an  hereditary  defect  or  whether  it  has  been  caused  by  acci- 
dent. Because  of  this  fact  it  is  always  advisable  not  to  breed 
from  deformed  fowls. 

Twisted  toes  may  result  from  many  causes.  Toes  of  young 
chicks  may  become  deformed  by  the  young  fowls  resting  on 
them  in  a  twisted  position  at  night  in  an  overheated  brooder. 
Larger  fowls  may  sometimes  step  on  the  toes  of  little  chicks 
and  twist  them  out  of  shape.  The  toes  of  both  fowls  and  chicks 
may  be  broken  or  their  feet  twisted  out  of  shape  by  catching 
them  in  cracks  between  boards.     Sometimes  twisted  toes  are 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  135 

hereditary  defects.  There  is  no  cure  for  twisted  toes,  no  matter 
what  their  cause,  but  they  count  against  a  fowl  in  the  show 
room.  Enlargement  of  the  joints  and  nattiral  deformities  of 
the  feet  may  be  transmitted  for  several  generations. 

Crooked  hocks  or  legs  that  turn  in  toward  the  breastbone, 
causing  knock  knees,  are  defects  that  should  never  be  over- 
looked in  the  selection  of  fowls  for  breeders.  Such  deformities 
not  only  destroy  symmetry  but  they  also  prevent  the  widening 
out  of  the  breast  between  the  thighs,  and  by  confining  the 
internal  organs  prove  injurious  to  the  development  and  gen- 
eral health  of  the  fowl.  Such  a  defect  will  not  only  render  a 
fowl  unfit  for  exhibition,  but  will  also  destroy  its  value  for 
breeding.  A  defect  of  this  kind  is  apt  to  reappear  not  only 
in  the  first  generation  but  also  in  the  offspring  of  many  other 
generations. 

Deformities  of  the  back  or  spine  consisting  of  twists  or  cur- 
vatures are  considered  strongly  hereditary,  and  for  this  reason 
should  be  stamped  out  of  a  flock  as  soon  as  possible. 

32.  Defects  in  the  arrangement  of  feathers  are  quite  com- 
mon in  poultry,  and  should  be  carefully  watched  for  and  avoided. 
It  frequently  happens  that  the  flight  feathers  of  the  wing 
will  hang  down  below  the  natural  wing  line.  When  this  is 
the  case,  a  fowl  is  said  to  have  a  slipped  wing  or  slipped  flight 
feathers.  This  may  be  a  natural  defect,  or  it  may  have  been 
caused  by  one  or  more  feathers  becoming  accidentally  twisted 
at  the  pinion  joint  of  the  wing,  a  circumstance  that  will  annoy 
the  fowl,  cause  it  to  work  its  wing  continually,  and  thus  give 
the  feathers  an  imnatural  shape  as  they  grow.  Slipped  flight 
feathers  occur  most  frequently  in  full-feathered  fowls.  It  is 
a  most  difficult  problem  to  breed  in  the  same  fowl  the  com- 
bination of  soft  hock  feathers,  pliable  tail  feathers,  and  per- 
fect wing  feathers  that  are  characteristic  of  Cochins  and  of 
fowls  of  other  breeds  that  are  so  profusely  feathered  as  to 
induce  a  heavier  growth  of  stiff  feathers  in  their  wings  and 
hocks  than  would  grow  naturally  on  a  close-feathered  fowl. 
When  the  wings  of  close-feathered  fowls  have  any  of  these 
defects,  the  faults  are  more  objectionable  than  in  others, 


*136  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

Slipped  flight  feathers  may  be  improved  by  binding  the 
flight  feathers  together  and  tying  them  up  against  the  upper 
portion  of  the  wing  as  shown  in  Fig.  1.  This  kind  of  treat- 
ment may  hold  the  flight  feathers  in  place  for  a  short  time, 

but  it  will  not  remove 
the  weakness  that  caused 
the  feathers  to  slip,  nor 
will  it  remove  the  unde- 
sirable breeding  defects. 
The  other  defects  that 
Fig.  1  are  apt  to  occur  in  the 

plumage  of  fowls  are :  the  failure  of  feathers  to  grow  on  the  wings 
at  the  juncture  of  the  flight  and  secondary  feathers,  the  failure 
of  some  feathers  to  completely  develop,  and  the  occurrence  on 
some  fowls  of  twisted  feathers  such  as  wry  tails,  squirrel  tails, 
and  tails  that  droop  unnaturally.  Although  some  of  these 
defects  may  be  temporarily  remedied,  the  remedy  does  not 
make  the  fowls  suitable  for  breeders,  and  all  fowls  showing 
such  deformities  should  be  rejected  as  defective  and  unfit 
for  either  the  show  room  or  the  breeding  pen. 


MANAGEMENT   OF  FOWLS   IN    CLOSE  CONFINEMENT 

33.  The  fancier  must  be  well  versed  in  the  art  of  managing 
his  fowls  in  close  confinement,  because  it  is  almost  impossible 
to  raise  exhibition  poultry  without  confining  them  at  some 
stage  of  their  development.  It  is  not  imusual  for  exhibition 
fowls  of  the  finest  quality  to  be  kept  in  close  confinement 
more  or  less  from  the  time  when  molting  begins  until  after  the 
show  season  has  ended.  To  keep  the  fowls  in  good  health 
and  to  preserve  all  their  good  qualities,  the  coops  and  runs 
must  be  kept  absolutely  clean  and  free  from  insect  vermin. 

Freedom  from  insect  vermin  is  very  important  in  the  case 
of  exhibition  poultry,  because  of  the  effect  the  insects  will 
have  on  the  pliimage.  If  depliiming,  or  feather,  mites  infest 
fowls  that  are  kept  in  confined  quarters,  the  destruction  of  the 
feathers  will  be  considerable,  and  this  will  naturally  detract 
a  great  deal  from  the  appearance  of  the  fowls,  as  shown  in 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT   137 

Fig.  2.  Once  these  mites  get  a  foothold,  the  even  temperature 
of  the  coops  and  the  steady,  moist  warmth  of  the  fowls  will 
encourage  their  speedy  growth,  and  they  frequently  deplume 
the  fowls  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  them  useless  for  exhi- 
bition. The  appearance  of  exhibition  fowls  is  also  affected  by 
red  mites  and  various  kinds  of  lice,  which  irritate  the  fowls 
and  take  from  them  such  a  quantity  of  blood  that  their 
vitality  is  reduced  and  they  are  not  able  to  make  a  proper 
growth  of  plumage. 


Yoimg  fowls,  that  is,  cockerels  and  pullets,  must  be  watched 
more  closely  if  kept  in  close  confinement  than  older  fowls,  as 
they  will  not  usually  thrive  well  under  such  conditions.  Young 
fowls  will  do  the  best  when  allowed  to  grow  to  maturity  on  the 
range,  and  the  more  freedom  they  have  the  better.  It  takes 
the  most  careful  management  to  produce  exhibition  cockerels 
and  pullets  of  the  best  quality  in  close  confinement,  and  this 
can  be  done  only  after  considerable  experience  has  been  gained. 


138  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT 


CARE    OF    HEAD    POINTS 

34.  It  is  particularly  important  to  have  the  head  points  of 
exhibition  fowls  in  the  best  possible  condition,  for  the  reason 
that  they  are  the  points  first  noticed  by  the  judge;  this  is 
especially  true  of  all  varieties  of  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
crested  fowls.  Too  much  care  cannot  be  given  to  the  culti- 
vation and  preparation  of  these  points  for  the  show  room. 
In  caring  for  the  head  points  of  a  fowl,  however,  it  must  always 
be  borne  in  mind  that  there  is  a  point  beyond  which  it  is  not 
permissible  to  go.  The  natural  beauty  of  these  points  may  be 
brought  out  to  the  best  advantage,  but  it  is  not  a  legitimate 
practice  to  trim,  cut,  or  alter  the  shape  of  the  comb  or  wattles, 
nor  is  it  proper  to  tamper  with  the  ear  lobes  except  to  treat 
them  so  that  they  wiU  be  in  good  condition. 

To  keep  the  combs  and  the  other  head  points  in  good  condi- 
tion, it  is  fundamentally  necessary  to  keep  the  fowls  free  from 
insect  vermin  and  to  maintain  their  vitality.  Scurf  is  apt  to 
appear  on  the  face,  comb,  and  wattles  of  fowls  that  are  exposed 
to  the  ravages  of  insect  vermin  of  any  kind,  and  loss  of 
\dtality  from  any  cause  whatever  will  lead  to  diseased  combs. 
To  avoid  both  of  these  undesirable  conditions,  absolute  cleanli- 
ness both  of  the  fowls  and  of  their  living  quarters  is  a  necessity. 

Whenever  the  least  sign  of  scurf  makes  its  appearance  on 
any  part  of  the  face,  comb,  wattles,  or  ear  lobes,  these  parts 
should  be  washed  perfectly  clean  with  a  brush  and  soap  and 
then  rinsed  with  clean  water  and  dried  with  a  soft  cloth.  If 
any  sign  of  white  spots  appears  on  any  of  these  parts,  the 
affected  place  should  be  rubbed  thoroughly  with  a  small 
quantity  of  iodide  of  sulphur  ointment.  Only  a  small  quantity 
of  this  should  be  used — not  enough  so  that  the  feathers  wiU 
be  smeared,  and  the  little  that  is  used  should  be  rubbed 
thoroughly  into  the  affected  parts. 

35.  Improvement  of  Color  of  Head  Points . — The  color 
of  comb,  wattles,  face,  and  ear  lobes  of  all  fowls  will  be  improved 
by  feeding  them  tincture  of  iron,  though  this  will  also  injure 
the  color  of  the  plimiage  of  white  and  buff  fowls, 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT   139 

The  color  of  the  comb,  face,  and  wattles  of  fowls  in  the  show 
pen  may  be  heightened  for  the  time  being  by  bringing  strange 
males  and  holding  them  in  front  of  the  coops.  This  will 
excite  the  ire  of  the  fowl  in  the  coop  and  cause  the  blood  to 
flow  more  rapidly  throughout  its  system.  This  increase  in 
circulation  of  the  blood  will  improve  the  appearance  of  the 
head  points,  including  the  eyes. 

36.  Care  of  Combs. — Very  large  combs  are  caused  by 
excessive  heat,  by  overfeeding,  and  by  feeding  an  excess  of  ani- 
mal food.  The  methods  of  preventing  these  faiilts  readily  sug- 
gest themselves.  Extremes  of  temperatures  in  the  living  quar- 
ters of  either  piillets  or  cockerels  should  be  avoided.  Cockerels 
should  not  be  kept  where  it  is  cold  enough  to  retard  their 
bodily  development,  nor  should  pullets  be  kept  where  it  will 
be  warm  enough  to  hasten  unduly  their  bodily  development, 
for  this  will  also  tend  to  loosen  their  plumage  and  prevent  the 
best  results  from  being  obtained. 

The  combs  of  cockerels  will  quickly  overdevelop  and  some- 
times become  rough  if  they  are  kept  in  warm  coops.  Such 
conditions  are  often  brought  about  by  overcrowding  the  fowls 
in  coops.  Because  of  this  fact,  cockerels  of  the  Mediterranean 
class  and  of  other  kinds  that  show  an  inclination  to  over- 
development of  the  comb,  should  be  kept  continually  in  cool 
places. 

The  development  of  the  comb  in  pullets  is  not  so  marked 
as  in  the  case  of  cockerels,  and  when  the  combs  of  the  pullets 
do  not  develop  sufficiently  fast,  the  growth  may  be  advanced 
by  keeping  them  in  warm  places.  In  such  places,  however, 
they  must  be  carefully  watched  to  avoid  an  overdevelopment 
of  the  comb,  and  the  keeping  of  pullets  in  warm  places  also  has 
the  disadvantage  of  hastening  egg  production;  hence,  caution 
should  be  used  in  keeping  pullets  in  warm  places. 

Fowls  of  breeds  and  varieties  that  have  large  combs  natur- 
ally or  fowls  of  any  kind  that  have  an  overdevelopment  of 
comb  should  never  be  kept  in  warm  places  during  the  winter 
months,  nor  should  they  be  fed  meat  or  condiments  of  any 
kind  that  will  be  apt  to  increase  the  growth  of  comb. 


140  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

Small,  depressed  spots  termed  thumb  marks  are  frequently 
found  on  the  combs  of  Leghorns  and  Minorcas.  These  are  usu- 
ally caused  by  the  combs  of  the  growing  chicks  becoming  bent 
over  either  by  the  excessive  heat  of  the  brooder  or  by  the  con- 
stant pressure  of  the  body  of  the  mother  hen  against  the  comb. 
If  noticed  at  their  beginning,  these  indentations  may  be  partly 
removed  by  frequently  rubbing  the  comb  between  the  thumb 
and  fingers,  not  hard  enough  to  irritate,  but  just  enough  to 
make  the  comb  pliable  and  to  work  out  the  wrinkles.  The 
use  of  a  Httle  vaseline  dtiring  the  rubbing  will  aid  in  the  manip- 
ulation of  the  comb. 

Side  sprigs,  one  of  the  most  common  defects  of  the  comb, 
are  the  bane  of  the  fancier.  They  are  thought  to  be  a  breed- 
ing defect  that  comes  from  interminghng  double,  rose,  and 
single  combs  in  the  original  crosses.  There  is  no  legitimate 
way  to  remove  side  sprigs,  though  some  breeders  do  remove 
them  successfully  by  pinching  them  off  between  the  nails  of 
the  thiimb  and  finger. 

The  shape  of  slightly  imperfect  combs  may  be  improved  by 
proper  manipiilation.  Points  that  are  crooked  or  that  hang 
out  of  form  may  be  worked  into  shape  by  massaging  with  the 
thumb  and  fingers,  using  a  little  vaseline  to  avoid  friction. 
To  be  effective,  however,  the  work  should  be  begun  the  moment 
the  defect  makes  its  appearance. 

37.  Care  of  Ear  Lobes. — ^White  ear  lobes  that  are  rough, 
irregular,  or  slow  in  development  may  be  improved  by  care- 
ful* massage.  The  ear  lobes  should  be  first  washed  with  soap 
and  warm  water,  anointed  with  thick  cream,  and  then  rubbed 
gently  between  the  thumb  and  fingers.  Following  this  a 
lotion  made  of  glycerine  with  a  small  quantity  of  oxide  of  zinc, 
or  just  some  cream,  should  be  applied.  The  ear  lobes  should 
then  be  gently  dried  with  a  soft  cloth  and  sprinkled  with  a 
little  dry  oxide  of  zinc.  Under  such  treatment  the  wrinkles 
in  the  lobes  will  gradually  soften  and  the  lobes  will  become 
more  pliable. 

Red  spots  in  white  ear  lobes  and  white,  or  enamel,  spots  in 
red  ear  lobes  cannot  be  successfully  removed,  but  they  may  be 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  141 

improved  if  properly  manipulated.  They  should  be  treated 
as  recommended  for  rough  and  irregular  ear  lobes,  but  the 
rubbing  should  be  more  vigorous,  so  as  to  increase  the  cir- 
culation of  blood  through  the  lobes.  Though  this  rubbing 
may  be  carried  to  a  considerable  extent,  it  should  never  be 
persisted  in  long  enough  to  inflame  or  irritate  the  lobes. 

If  fowls  with  white  ear  lobes  are  protected  from  the  sun 
and  rain  the  whiteness  of  these  parts  will  be  better  preserved 
than  if  the  fowls  are  exposed  to  the  elements. 

The  white  flashes  that  come  and  go  on  the  faces  and  combs 
of  both  males  and  females  that  have  red  faces  as  well  as  combs 
may  be  avoided  to  a  certain  extent  in  dark-plumaged  fowls 
by  feeding  them  iron,  but  the  same  treatment  would  ruin  the 
plumage  of  white  or  partly  white  fowls.  When  iron  is  fed 
during  the  molting  period  not  only  will  the  color  of  the  comb, 
wattles,  and  ear  lobes  be  improved,  but  also  the  luster  of  the 
plumage  of  dark  fowls  will  be  greatly  enhanced. 

Ear  lobes  that  are  small  or  wrinkled  may  be  improved  by 
anointing  them  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  cream  and 
zinc  oxide  and  properly  massaging  them.  During  the  mas- 
saging the  ear  lobes  should  not  be  rubbed,  but  they  should  be 
gently  gripped  by  the  fingers  at  the  point  where  they  join  the 
head  and  gently  stretched  by  drawing  the  fingers  slowly  out 
toward  the  edges  and  the  lobe  allowed  to  slip  through  them. 
If  this  stretching  is  done  gently  once  or  twice  a  day,  the  ear 
lobes  will  soon  become  more  smooth  and  will  assume  a  more 
attractive  appearance.  Care  should  be  taken  never  to  bruise 
them. 

38.  Care  of  Crests. — ^When  the  period  of  molt  arrives, 
the  crests  of  all  crested  fowls  should  be  gone  over  carefully 
and  every  stub  and  broken  feather,  and  every  feather  having 
a  dead  appearance,  as  though  having  been  retained  in  the 
crest  during  the  previous  period  of  molt,  should  be  carefully 
plucked  out.  The  beard  about  the  throat  should  be  treated 
in  the  same  manner.  On  crested  fowls,  when  the  system  of 
trimming  the  crest  off  short  during  the  breeding  season  has 
been  followed,  a  large  number  of  stubs  will  be  found  in  the 


142   STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

crests.  A  few  of  these  should  be  plucked  out  each  day  during 
the  molting  period;  this  should  be  done  with  extreme  care  to 
avoid  injiuing  the  scalp.  To  insure  against  the  injury  of  the 
scalp  of  fowls  that  are  treated  in  this  way,  they  should  be  con- 
fined indoors,  each  one  by  itself.  Being  indoors,  their  scalps 
will  be  protected  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and  being 
separate,  other  fowls  will  be  prevented  from  picking  the  bare 
scalp  and  thus  ruining  the  fowl  for  exhibition  purposes. 

To  produce  satisfactory  crested  fowls,  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
each  one  by  itself  from  the  beginning  of  molt  until  the  crest 
is  full  grown,  and  even  then  the  crested  fowls  should  be  closely 
watched  when  with  those  of  their  own  or  other  kinds  to  pre- 
vent the  plucking  of  feathers  from  the  crest. 

After  fowls  have  been  thoroughly  cleaned,  the  use  of  oil  or 
alcohol  about  the  head,  face,  comb,  or  wattles  is  to  be  dis- 
coiiraged.  Clean,  warm  water  will  be  found  best  for  cleaning 
these  parts.  Combs,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  that  have  been 
cleaned  with  alcohol,  oil,  or  vinegar  are  likely  to  show  a  whitish 
cast  a  few  hoxirs  after  treatment,  and  scales  like  dandruff  some- 
times appear  within  24  hours  after  they  have  been  cleaned  in 
this  way.  When  combs  are  scurfed  over  and  scaly  or  full  of 
rough  places  and  dirt,  they  may  be  cleaned  with  soap  and  water 
and  a  soft-bristled  tooth  brush  or  other  brush  that  will  not 
tear  the  surface  of  the  comb.  In  scrubbing  any  of  the  head 
parts  in  this  way,  great  care  should  be  taken  not  to  irritate 
them. 

39.  Lotions  and  Ointments  for  Head  Parts. — Noth- 
ing is  better  for  softening  the  skin  on  the  face,  comb,  wattles, 
and  ear  lobes  than  a  lotion  of  4  parts  of  thick  cream  and  1  part  of 
zinc  oxide.  When  this  is  used,  it  should  not  be  smeared  thickly 
over  the  spots  but  should  be  rubbed  in  gently  with  the  thtimb 
and  fingers,  and  when  the  parts  are  thoroughly  softened  they 
should  be  dried  with  a  cloth.  White  ear  lobes  may  be  improved 
by  such  treatment. 

No  liquids  that  are  likely  to  irritate  the  comb,  face,  wattles, 
or  ear  lobes  shoiild  ever  be  applied  to  these  parts,  because  such 
irritation  will  be  liable  to  cause  scales  similar  to  dandruff 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  143 

scales  to  grow.  Warm  rainwater  is  at  all  times  to  be  preferred 
for  cleansing  the  head  parts.  Oil,  vinegar,  and  alcohol  are 
likely  to  have  an  irritating  effect,  though  a  mixture  of  3  parts 
of  water  and  1  part  of  vinegar  may  be  safely  used.  Oil  is 
particularly  objectionable  for  using  on  the  head  parts,  because, 
in  addition  to  its  irritating  effect,  it  is  also  likely  to  drip  off 
and  smear  the  pliunage — a  thing  that  will  be  greatly  detrimen- 
tal to  the  quality  and  appearance  of  the  pliimage.  Whenever 
grease  of  any  kind  is  needed  on  the  head  parts,  a  mixtiu"e  of 
either  cream  or  glycerine  thickened  with  zinc  oxide  is  the  best 
for  the  purpose,  and  only  a  small  quantity  of  this  should  be 
used  at  a  time — the  parts  shotdd  never  be  smeared  with  either 
of  these  mixtures. 

As  previously  mentioned,  iodide  of  sulphur  ointment  is 
suitable  for  using  on  the  head  parts  of  fowls  when  a  germicide 
is  needed.  

CARE    OF    SHANKS    AND    FEET 

40.  The  shanks  and  feet  of  an  exhibition  fowl  are  very 
important  to  have  in  the  best  possible  condition,  as  defects 
in  these  parts  are  conspicuous  and  detract  a  great  deal  from 
the  appearance  of  a  fowl.  Great  care  and  attention  is  required 
to  keep  the  shanks  and  feet  of  fowls  in  perfect  condition,  and 
if  scales  once  begin  to  grow  on  the  shanks  it  will  require  con- 
stant watchfulness  to  prevent  the  fowls  from  becoming  dis- 
figiured,  thus  practically  disbarring  them  from  a  chance  to 
win  when  in  close  competition. 

The  shanks  and  feet  of  exhibition  fowls  should  be  kept 
clean  and  free  from  disease  at  all  times.  No  fowl  that  becomes 
infected  with  scaly  leg  should  ever  be  permitted  to  remain 
about  a  poultry  establishment.  In  cleaning  the  shanks  of 
fowls,  it  is  well  to  know  that  the  scales  are  shed  from  the  shanks 
naturally  at  nearly  the  same  time  that  the  feathers  are  molted. 
Loose  scales  that  do  not  shed  off  readily  should  be  removed  at 
this  time. 

Shanks,  feet,  and  toes  may  be  made  bright  and  glossy  by 
poHshing  them  first  with  a  woolen  cloth  moistened  in  sweet 
oil  and  then  by  polishing  them  with  a  bit  of  chamois.     The  use 


144  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

of  oil,  coloring  matter,  or  stains  of  any  kind  is  apt  to  destroy 
the  natural  gloss  of  these  parts  and  give  them  an  unnatural 
appearance.  A  thorough  polishing  with  a  woolen  rag  and 
then  with  chamois  without  the  application  of  any  oil  is  really 
to  be  preferred. 

In  cases  when  scales  or  scun'y  appear  on  the  shanks,  the 
appearance  of  the  shanks  may  be  improved  by  rubbing  them 
with  a  woolen  cloth  moistened  with  a  mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  sweet  oil  and  alcohol.  Whenever  oil  is  used  about  a  fowl, 
great  care  should  be  taken  never  to  soil  the  plimiage  with  it, 
and  no  traces  of  the  material  should  be  left  on  the  shanks 
and  feet. 

41.  Care  of  Shanks  and  Feet  of  Featlier -Legged 
Fowls. — Careless  methods  which  permit  dampness  and  filth 
to  abound  where  poultry  is  kept  is  almost  certain  to  cause 
rough  shanks  and  scaly  legs  and  feet.  The  methods  of  avoid- 
ing rough  shanks,  scaly  legs,  and  broken  shank  and  toe  feathers 
in  feather-legged  fowls,  however,  require  very  detailed  atten- 
tion, as  the  thickly  feathered  shanks  are  more  liable  to  become 
diseased.  Where  feathers  grow  profusely  on  the  shanks 
and  toes  there  is  always  scurt  among  them  close  to  the  scales. 
This  sciirf  and  the  scales  ftimish  a  safe  lodging  place  for  the 
mites  that  cause  scaly  leg  and  other  diseases.  When  these 
insects  once  obtain  a  foothold  the  work  of  destroying  the 
feathers  and  accimiulating  scurf  will  aften  proceed  unnoticed 
tmtil  the  legs  and  feet  have  become  covered  with  scales  and 
the  feathers  are  broken  or  destroyed.  When  this  stage  has 
been  reached,  the  size  of  the  shanks  and  feet  has  apparently 
increased  to  unnatural  proportions,  and  the  appearance  of  the 
shanks  and  feet  is  disgusting. 

The  closest  attention  to  cleanliness  and  sanitary  conditions 
is  required  to  avoid  diseased  conditions  in  feather-legged  fowls, 
and  after  the  shanks  and  feet  of  such  fowls  become  diseased 
prompt  and  energetic  measures  are  necessary  if  the  trouble  is 
to  be  checked  before  it  goes  too  far.  When  diseased,  it  is 
advisable  to  cut  off  all  the  feathers  on  the  shanks  and  toes, 
leaving  only  the  stubs  of  the  feathers;  these  parts  must  be 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  145 

cleansed  and  be  treated  with  carbolated  vaseline.  After 
the  fowl  is  almost  cured,  the  stubs  should  be  pulled  out  of  the 
shanks  and  feet  and  the  parts  thoroughly  cleansed  with  soap 
and  water,  dried,  anointed  with  zinc-oxide  ointment,  and  the 
fowls  kept  on  dry,  clean  straw  until  entirely  cured.  When 
the  new  feathers  begin  to  grow,  the  shanks  should  be  washed 
clean  and  poHshed  with  a  soft  cloth.  This  will  avoid  the  neces- 
sity of  polishing  the  shanks  later  after  the  feathers  are  full 
grown,  when  there  will  be  a  chance, of  breaking  them.  Abso- 
lute cleanliness  will  prevent  the  recurrence  of  the  trouble. 

Feather-legged  fowls  intended  for  exhibition  should  have 
all  the  short  stubs  and  broken  feathers  removed  from  their 
shanks  and  toes  as  soon  as  the  molt  begins.  The  shanks  and 
feet  should  be  kept  free  from  dirt  of  all  kinds,  and  the  fowls 
should  be  kept  where  the  feathers  will  grow  freely  without  the 
possibility  of  their  being  broken  off  by  contact  with  rough 
places.  To  prevent  the  shank  and  toe  feathers  from  becom- 
ing broken,  the  fowls  should  have  plenty  of  room  to  move 
about  both  inside  and  outside  of  the  houses,  so  that  they  will 
not  crowd  or  trample  on  one  another.  Neither  should  they  be 
permitted  to  scratch  for  their  food  from  the  beginning  of  molt 
until  the  end  of  the  show  season.  To  prevent  their  shanks 
and  feet  from  becoming  diseased,  in  addition  to  keeping  the 
yards  and  houses  clean,  the  floors  of  the  houses  should  be  cov- 
ered with  several  inches  of  dry  sand,  and  this  should  be  changed 
frequently  to  keep  it  clean  and  free  from  dampness.  When 
handled  as  just  described,  fine,  complete  shank  and  toe  feathers 
can  be  grown  on  Cochins,  Brahmas,  and  Langshans,  and  can 
be  maintained  in  perfect  condition  for  several  months. 

42.     Preservation  of  Color  of  Shaiiks  and  Feet. — The 

proper  shade  of  color  of  the  shanks  and  feet  is  one  of  the  most 
important  features  to  secure  and  maintain  in  a  fowl  that  is 
intended  for  exhibition.  As  fowls  grow  older,  it  is  perfectly  nat- 
ural for  them  gradually  to  lose  the  color  of  their  shanks  and  feet. 
This  loss  of  color  the  fancier  cannot  control.  But  he  is  able  to 
control  the  premature  loss  of  color  due  to  keeping  fowls  under 
improper  conditions. 


146  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

If  the  fowls  are  compelled  to  walk  around  continually  on  an 
alkali  soil,  or  in  ashes,  lime,  dampness,  or  filth,  the  color  of 
the  shanks  will  undergo  a  change.  Alkali  exerts  a  bleaching 
action.  Yellow  shanks  will  be  changed  to  white;  dark-colored 
shanks  will  be  turned  to  gray ;  green  or  blue  shanks,  to  a  grayish 
tint;  and  pinkish- white  shanks,  to  an  ashy  white. 

Keeping  the  fowls  on  a  grass-covered  range  or  a  clover  field 
and  on  clean  straw  in  the  houses  will  improve  the  color  of  the 
shanks  and  feet  of  all  varieties. 


CARE    OF    PLUMAGE 

43.  As  a  preliminary  to  preparing  fowls  for  the  show  room, 
a  careful  examination  of  their  plumage  should  be  made  at  least 
60  days  before  the  date  on  which  they  are  to  be  exhibited. 
At  this  time  all  broken  feathers  should  be  removed,  or  at  least 
this  should  be  done  at  a  time  that  will  assure  their  renewal  in 
time  for  exhibition. 

If  wing,  sickle,  or  covert  feathers  are  broken  they  should  be 
removed  as  soon  as  the  quills  are  dry,  because  it  will  take 
60  days  or  more  for  a  long,  sweeping  sickle  to  grow  to  complete 
length  in  a  Hamburg  or  a  Leghorn,  or  in  other  fowls  with  sim- 
ilar sweeping  tails.  The  tail  feathers  of  Asiatics  and  of  females 
of  all  breeds  will  grow  in  a  shorter  time.  The  average  tail 
feathers  of  Cochin  females  will  grow  in  from  4  to  5  weeks, 
and  the  wing  and  tail  feathers  of  a  Brahma  hen  will  grow  in 
6  weeks.  The  tails  of  hens  of  the  Mediterranean  varieties 
will  grow  complete  in  from  5  to  7  weeks,  and  the  tails 
of  some  other  of  the  small  varieties  will  grow  even  more  quickly. 

Particular  attention  should  be  given  to  the  examination  of 
the  plimiage  of  buff-colored  fowls.  Buff  fowls  that  do  not 
molt  completely  are  apt  to  show  a  mottled  surface  color,  which 
on  close  examination  will  be  foimd  to  be  due  to  the  presence  of 
many  old  feathers.  In  such  cases,  the  unmolted  plumage,  or 
old  feathers,  should  be  plucked  out  carefully  one  at  a  time, 
so  as  not  to  disturb  the  new  growth  of  feathers.  After  the 
removal  of  the  old  feathers,  new  ones  will  grow  in  their  stead 
in  from  4  to  6  weeks.     All  tail  and  wing  feathers  that  are 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  147 

not  dropped  naturally  during  the  molt  should  be  carefully 
removed,  one  at  a  time,  as  soon  as  it  is  evident  that  they  will 
not  be  dropped. 

Stubs  of  feathers  and  broken  feathers  shoiild  be  carefully 
removed  just  as  the  fowls  begin  to  molt.  All  parts  of  the  body 
shotdd  be  gone  over,  and  each  stub  removed  gently  so  as  to 
avoid  giving  pain  or  tearing  the  skin  of  the  fowl.  These  stubs 
should  not  be  plucked  too  soon  before  the  fowls  begin  to  molt, 
for  in  such  cases  the  feathers  that  grow  from  these  feather  cells 
will  be  apt  to  develop  more  quickly  than  the  rest  of  the  plumage 
and  thus  would  probably  cause  an  imeven  surface  color. 

In  removing  either  feathers  or  stubs  of  feathers  from  dark- 
plumaged  fowls,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  injure  the  feather 
cells  that  must  produce  the  new  feathers,  because  such  injuries 
will  cause  white  tips  or  white  edges  to  show  in  the  new  growth. 
To  avoid  all  chance  of  injury  to  the  feather  cells,  the  quills 
should  not  be  removed  until  they  are  perfectly  ripe,  or  dry. 
This  state  of  dryness  in  a  quill  may  be  brought  about  by  trim- 
ming a  little  from  the  outer  end  of  the  feather  every  day  or 
two.  This,  by  discoiu-aging  the  growth  of  the  feather,  causes 
the  quill  to  shrink  and  loosen  the  hold  of  the  skin  on  it. 

If  close  attention  is  given  to  these  details,  all  fowls  may  be 
assisted  through  their  molt  and  a  complete,  fresh  covering  of 
feathers  secured  at  the  time  when  they  will  be  needed  for  the 
show  room. 

44.     Protection    of   Plumage   From    Sun   and   Rain. 

From  the  time  they  begin  their  molt,  fowls  that  are  intended  for 
exhibition  should  be  protected  from  the  elements,  at  least  to 
the  extent  of  not  having  their  plumage  soaked  by  the  rain  and 
then  dried  in  the  sun.  Exposure  to  the  sun  after  wetting 
causes  what  is  known  as  supplementary  lacing;  that  is,  the 
outer  edge  of  the  web  of  the  feather  is  bleached  to  a  lighter 
shade  of  color  than  the  other  parts  of  the  feather.  Fowls  of 
all  colors  will  have  their  plumage  more  or  less  injured  in  this 
way  by  exposure  to  rain  and  sun,  though  the  injury  is  more 
noticeable  in  the  plumage  of  buff  fowls.  The  plumage  of  buff- 
colored  pullets  is  more  injured  than  is  that  of  the  cockerels. 


148  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

The  predisposition  to  a  creamy-yellow  cast  in  the  surface 
plumage  of  the  males  of  certain  white-plumaged  fowls  that 
have  come  from  dark-plumaged  fowls,  such  as  the  White 
Orpingtons,  White  Pl3rmouth  Rocks,  and  White  Wyandottes, 
although  it  may  be  bred  out  of  a  flock  by  careful  selection,  is 
likely  to  become  more  pronounced  if  the  fowls  are  exposed  to 
the  rays  of  the  sun  while  their  feathers  are  wet.  This  creamy 
yellowness  is  very  undesirable  in  exhibition  fowls,  but  it  is  un- 
sportsmanlike and  illegitimate  to  bleach  it  out.  To  be  on  the 
safe  side,  white  fowls  should  never  be  exposed  to  the  rain  and 
Sim  after  the  molt  begins.  The  feathers  of  white-plumaged 
fowls  that  are  pure  white  down  to  the  skin,  including  the  quills, 
will  not  be  injured  so  much  by  exposure  to  the  rain  and  sim. 
This  may  give  them  a  little  supplementary  lacing  at  the  edges 
of  the  feathers  but  it  will  not  turn  them  yellow. 

Cockerels  and  pullets  of  all  varieties,  particularly,  should 
be  watched  and  protected  from  the  rain  and  sun.  Although 
these  yoimg  fowls  do  not  molt  completely  at  the  time  of  assu- 
ming their  adult  plimiage,  they  do  grow  three  complete  cover- 
ings of  feathers  between  the  embryo  state  and  the  time  of 
assimiing  their  mature  pliimage.  As  soon  as  the  first  feathers 
of  the  adult  growth  appear,  they  should  be  protected  from  the 
rain,  and,  when  wet,  must  not  be  dried  by  the  swci. 

Whiteness  of  the  plumage,  whiteness  of  the  ear  lobes,  bril- 
liancy of  sheen,  and  show  condition  will  all  be  materially 
improved  by  sheltering  the  fowls  from  the  sun  and  rain.  In 
the  preparation  of  fowls  for  exhibition,  special  attention  must 
be  given  to  protect  their  plumage.  Coops  well  suited  for  such 
protection  are  shown  in  Standard-Bred  Poultry,  Part  1.  These 
coops  may  be  changed  to  suit  different  localities. 

Young  chicks  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  scorching  rays 
of  the  sun,  as  this  is  likely  to  blister  them  and  lessen  their 
chances  of  growing  a  covering  of  perfect  pluniage. 

45.  Causes  of  White  Feathers. — The  white  feathers  that 
appear  in  the  plumage  of  dark-colored  fowls  are  frequently 
due  to  the  injury  of  such  feathers  while  small  during  the  molt. 
When  a  soft,  new  feather  is  injured  the  blood  usually  flows 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  149 

from  it,  and  it  then  grows  out  white,  failing  to  develop  the  color 
natural  to  the  variety.  Feather-legged  fowls  may  have  white 
feathers  on  their  shanks  and  toes  due  to  bruising  or  breaking 
when  small.  White  feathers  also  occur  from  the  same  cause 
in  wings,  tails,  and  in  other  parts  of  the  body.  Such  injuries 
to  the  feathers  are  often  caused  by  the  fowls  becoming  fright- 
ened during  molt,  dashing  around  in  the  houses,  and  striking 
their  feathers  against  roosts,  nest  boxes,  side  walls,  etc.  Many 
prizes  have  been  lost  through  injuries  of  this  kind  that  might 
easily  have  been  prevented  by  the  exercise  of  a  little  care. 

Fowls  infested  with  lice  or  lacking  in  vitality  are  likely  to 
grow  feathers  of  an  uneven  shade  and  that  lack  gloss  and  finish ; 
and  white  feathers  are  also  likely  to  grow  in  dark-plumaged 
fowls  that  are  so  affected.    

TRAINING  OP  FOWLS  FOR  THE  SHOW  ROOM 

46.  The  natural  form  of  a  fowl  is  that  which  it  uncon- 
sciously assumes  when  standing  at  rest,  that  is,  it  is  the  form 
it  assumes  in  a  natural,  unconscious  pose.  This  natural  form 
in  a  fowl  may  be  inherited  from  its  ancestors,  but  it  is  seldom 
seen,  because,  when  frightened,  when  running,  when  feeding, 
or  when  engaged  in  pursuits  that  demand  movement,  it  is  not 
well  shown.  It  is  also  very  seldom  that  a  fowl's  natural  form 
is  exactly  true  to  the  type  of  the  breed  to  which  it  belongs. 
Hence,  a  fowl  that  has  natural  form  that  corresponds  closely 
with  the  proper  breed  type  is  very  valuable,  especially  if  this 
is  a  dominant  quality  and  the  fowl  is  capable  of  transmitting 
its  desirable  nattural  form  to  its  offspring. 

Because  of  the  fact  that  most  fowls  will  not  pose  naturally 
in  a  form  that  closely  approximates  the  type  of  the  breed  to 
which  they  belong,  fanciers  early  resorted  to  training  their 
fowls  so  that  they  would  pose  in  certain  desired  positions  at  a 
signal  or  as  soon  as  any  person  approached  them,  and  thus 
exhibit  their  breed  characters  to  the  best  advantage.  The  form 
that  is  the  result  of  such  training  is  called  made  form.  It  is 
unnatural  to  the  fowl,  and  is  not  transmitted  to  its  offspring— 
the  ungainly  form  that  such  a  fowl  might  have  shown  before 
its  training  will  ordinarily  be  transmitted  to  its  offspring.     A 


150  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

fowl  that  has  remarkable  shape  or  form  when  at  freedom  will 
be  almost  certain  to  assume  even  more  attractive  poses  when 
penned  for  exhibition.  It  will  also  possess  the  valuable  qual- 
ity of  transmitting  its  beautiful  form  to  its  offspring. 

For  those  who  are  adept  at  training  poultry,  it  is  possible 
to  train  fowls  so  that  they  will  stand,  or  pose,  in  almost  any 
desired  position  within  reason.  It  is  thus  possible  to  change 
the  entire  formation  of  a  fowl  from  that  which  is  natural  to  it. 
For  instance,  a  fowl  may  be  taught  to  stand  more  erect,  to 
lean  forwards  a  trifle,  to  stoop  a  little  at  the  hock  joint,  to  hold 
its  head  erect,  to  curve  the  neck  either  forwards  or  backwards, 
and  to  hold  the  head  as  though  looking  to  one  side. 

The  wonderful  poses  of  extremely  well-trained  game  and 
game  bantam  fowls  illustrate  how  much  the  form  of  a  fowl 
may  be  changed  from  its  original  natural  form.  This  is  some- 
times so  marked  as  to  lead  persons  unfamiliar  with  these  fowls 
to  think  them  different  fowls  before  and  after  posing.  Though 
the  poses  of  game  and  game  bantam  fowls  are  a  remarkable 
result  of  careful  training,  fowls  of  almost  any  variety  may, 
with  patience,  be  taught  to  assume  striking  attitudes  when  they 
are  placed  in  coops,  for  exhibition.  Turkeys,  geese,  and  ducks 
may  also  be  trained  to  improve  their  form  in  the  show  room. 

Show-rooin  form  is  the  form  exhibited  by  a  fowl  when  it  is 
placed  in  a  coop  in  an  exhibition  hall.  This  may  be  natural 
form  or  it  may  be  made  form — that  is,  largely  artificial — ^but 
the  method  of  obtaining  the  form  is  never  considered  by  the 
judges.  All  they  can  judge  a  fowl  by  is  the  actual  form  in 
which  it  poses  before  them  and  its  behavior  during  the  time  it 
is  being  judged. 

47.  When  a  fowl  appears  at  ease  in  an  exhibition  coop 
in  a  show  and  does  not  attempt  to  interfere  with  or  attract 
the  attention  of  other  fowls  in  its  immediate  vicinity,  it  is 
said  to  have  good  pen  raanners.  The  most  effective  way  to 
insure  good  pen  manners  in  any  fowl  is  to  keep  it  where  it  can 
be  accustomed  to  the  presence  of  other  fowls ;  this  is  not  always 
easy,  because  the  males  and  females  intended  for  exhibition 
should  never  be  permitted  to  run  together  in  the  same  enclo- 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  151 

sures  from  the  beginning  of  the  period  of  molt  until  the  close 
of  the  show  season. 

Females  intended  for  exhibition  should  have  a  small-sized 
male  turned  in  with  them  for  an  hour  each  day  during  the  week 
prior  to  the  exhibition.  Such  a  male  will  not  be  large  enough 
to  injure  their  plumage,  and  by  being  accustomed  to  his  pres- 
ence the  possibility  of  the  females  appearing  at  a  disadvantage 
when  they  are  penned  in  the  vicinity  of  males  at  a  show  will 
be  removed.  Males  that  are  kept  together,  or  near  together, 
in  coops  or  pens  are  likely  to  behave  much  better  in  the  show 
room  than  those  that  have  been  kept  away  from  all  other 
fowls. 

The  pen  manners  of  both  males  and  females  may  be  further 
improved  at  home  by  confining  them  for  a  certain  length  of 
time  each  day  in  exhibition  coops  of  the  size  that  are  com- 
monly used  in  the  show  room,  and  by  having  them  handled 
as  frequently  as  possible  by  strangers,  in  order  to  accustom 
them  to  strangers  before  they  have  to  face  the  crowds  in  the 
show  room. 

48.  Method  of  Training. — As  applied  to  poultry,  train- 
ing means  the  teaching  of  pen,  or  show  room,  manners  to  fowls, 
so  that  they  will  appear  to  the  best  advantage  when  on  exhi- 
bition. The  objects  of  training  fowls  are  to  teach  them: 
(1)  To  stand  well  when  on  inspection,  that  is,  to  pose;  (2)  to 
be  quiet  or  self-possessed;  (3)  to  permit  of  handling  without 
offering  resistance. 

Perhaps  the  most  important  thing  to  bear  in  mind  when 
training  a  fowl  is  that  to  show  to  best  advantage  a  fowl  must 
be  absolutely  fearless.  A  fowl  should  never  be  frightened, 
and  it  should  be  gradually  accustomed  to  the  presence  of  as 
many  people  as  possible,  and  to  children,  dogs,  and  any  other 
objects  they  will  be  likely  to  see  in  a  poultry  show.  It  should 
also  be  accustomed  to  the  presence  of  other  fowls  in  coops 
near  by,  and  to  a  certain  amount  of  noise,  so  that  the  con- 
ditions in  the  show  room  will  not  be  too  strange  to  it. 

In  training  fowls,  it  is  necessary  for  the  fancier  to  exercise 
the  greatest  kindness  and  patience.     No  attempt  should  ever 


152   STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

be  made  to  force  a  fowl  to  pose  in  any  particular  position. 
As  far  as  possible,  it  is  much  better  to  appeal  to  the  greed  of 
the  fowl  by  offering  choice  bits  of  food,  and  thus  get  it  to  assume 
the  desired  positions  unconsciously.  When  a  fowl  has  hopes 
of  receiving  food  it  will  pose  in  an  alert  and  sprightly  attitude 
that  might  be  impossible  to  obtain  in  any  other  way.  Hence, 
every  time  that  the  trainer  approaches  the  coop  in  which  an 
exhibition  fowl  is  confined  he  should  give  it  a  morsel  to  eat. 
By  this  method  the  fowl  will  soon  become  accustomed  to 
expect  food  when  any  person  approaches  it,  and  will  imme- 
diately strike  the  attitude  it  has  been  accustomed  to.  The 
alert  appearance  on  such  occasions  will  be  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  fowl  will  be  keenly  looking  for  the  food  that  it  expects. 

49.  The  first  step  in  training  a  fowl  is  to  place  it  in  a  coop 
of  the  same  size  as  the  regulation  exhibition  coop,  which  is 
26  inches  high,  24  inches  long,  and  22  inches  wide.  A  coop 
24  inches  square  and  29  or  30  inches  high  is  preferable  for 
fowls  of  large  size  like  the  Brahmas  or  Langshans.  The  coop 
should  be  placed  where  there  is  plenty  of  light,  and  similar 
coops  containing  other  fowls  should  be  placed  near  it.  If 
possible,  it  is  advisable  to  place  the  coop  or  coops  in  which  the 
fowls  to  be  trained  are  confined  in  a  location  that  the  trainer 
passes  very  frequently.  This  will  save  the  trainer  many  steps 
and  will  accustom  the  fowls  to  having  people  pass  them.  As 
mentioned  before,  children  and  dogs  playing  around  the  coop 
will  also  aid  in  training  the  fowl.  Litter,  usually  shavings, 
such  as  is  used  in  exhibitions,  should  be  placed  on  the  floor  of 
the  coop. 

As  soon  as  the  fowl  becomes  somewhat  accustomed  to  its 
new  surroundings,  the  next  step  is  to  quiet  it  by  putting  the 
hand  into  the  coop  and  patting  it  gently  on  the  back,  under 
the  breast,  and  under  the  throat.  Occasionally,  the  trainer 
should  take  hold  of  the  wing  and  open  it  out  gently  as  a  judge 
would  do  when  looking  to  see  whether  it  has  any  foreign  color. 
The  feathers  of  tight-plumaged  fowls,  such  as  the  Leghorns 
and  the  Minorcas,  may  be  stroked  with  the  lay  of  the  feathers, 
but  the  plumage  of  loose-feathered,  or  fluffy,  fowls,  such  as  the 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  153 

Cochins  and  the  Wyandottes,  should  never  be  smoothed  down. 
The  plumage  of  such  fowls  should  be  frequently  ruffled  by 
starting  with  the  fingers  touching  in  the  back  at  the  rear  of 
the  abdomen  and  drawing  them  gently  up  against  the  lay  of 
the  feathers  the  full  length  of  the  body.  After  these  first  two 
stages  of  training  have  been  continued  for  a  few  days  the  fowls 
should  be  quiet  and  self-possessed  with  people  and  other  fowls 
around  them,  and  should  appear  to  enjoy  being  caressed  with 
the  hands.  They  will  then  be  in  the  proper  frame  of  mind  to 
be  trained  in  the  finer  points  of  posing. 

It  must  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  to  get  a  fowl  to  pose 
attractively  it  must  be  taught  to  expect  attention  whenever 
any  person  approaches  the  coop.  To  impress  this  idea  on  the 
mind  of  a  fowl,  a  trainer  should  never  approach  the  coop  with- 
out paying  some  attention  to  the  fowl.  During  the  show,  of 
course,  but  comparatively  few  persons  will  handle  it,  but  the 
habit  formed  during  the  training  will  cling  to  the  fowl  and  it 
will  pose  for  any  person  in  the  hope  of  receiving  a  titbit. 

50.  The  food  used  for  coaxing  fowls  during  training  may 
be  almost  any  of  the  ordinary  poultry  feeds.  A  kernel  of  com 
or  a  small  bit  of  stale  bread  is  convenient.  This  should  be 
held  between  the  fingers  at  the  desired  height  and  position. 
The  food  should  not  be  held  too  high  or  the  fowl  may  assume 
a  shortened  appearance  because  of  stretching  upwards.  If  it 
is  desired  to  have  the  fowl  stand  squarely  in  front  of  the  judge 
or  of  any  person  looking  into  the  coop,  the  food  should  be  held 
at  a  point  near  the  center  of  the  coop ;  if  the  object  is  to  get  the 
fowl  to  stand  a  little  side  wise,  the  food  should  be  held  to  one 
side  or  the  other.  A  fowl  trained  in  this  way  will  always  come 
to  the  front  of  the  coop  when  any  person  approaches.  It  wiU 
never  cringe  or  cower  in  the  back  part  of  the  coop.  A  fowl  that 
will  shrink  its  feathers  in  and  cower  away  from  the  judge  as 
though  afraid  can  never  be  expected  to  win  a  prize  where  the 
competition  is  keen.  Some  trainers  will  hold  a  bit  of  food 
between  their  lips  instead  of  in  their  fingers  and  allow  the  fowl 
to  pick  it  out.  A  fowl  so  trained  will  be  alert  when  a  judge  puts 
his  head  near  the  coop  to  get  a  close  view  of  it. 


154  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

As  soon  as  a  fowl  has  been  taught  to  come  to  the  front  part 
of  the  cage  in  the  desired  position  the  trainer  should  begin  to 
train  the  fowl  with  a  light,  round  stick  about  24  to  30  inches 
long,  similar  to  that  used  by  judges.  With  this,  the  fowl 
should  be  tapped  gently  on  the  back,  under  the  breast,  and 
under  the  throat.  This  should  be  done  carefully  at  first, 
until  the  fowl  becomes  accustomed  to  the  stick,  and  should 
be  continued  imtil  the  fowl  will  stand  in  the  shape  that  it  is 
desired  to  show  to  the  judge.  Such  work  requires  skill  and 
experience  and  can  be  learned  only  by  continually  practicing 
it  on  fowls.  It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  steady, 
continuous  posing  is  one  of  the  most  desirable  requisites  for 
an  exhibition  fowl.  A  fowl  that  will  pose  steadily  in  such  a 
position  that  it  will  show  off  the  beauties  of  its  formation  to 
best  advantage  is  several  times  more  valuable  than  one  that 
will  pose  for  only  a  moment  or  two.  It  is  one  of  the  advantages 
of  the  experienced  and  expert  fancier  that  his  fowls  will  not 
only  pose  in  good  form  but  that  they  will  also  hold  their  pose 
before  the  judge  at  least  long  enough  for  him  to  have  the  oppor- 
tunity to  score  all  of  its  points. 

In  training  a  fowl  whose  tail  is  carried  too  high  it  will  some- 
times be  found  impossible  to  induce  the  fowl  to  carry  it  lower. 
In  some  cases  of  this  kind  it  will  be  possible  to  lower  the  tail 
feathers  as  much  as  ten  degrees  by  taking  hold  of  the  tail  piece 
and  gradually  and  gently  working  the  feathers  down  and 
repeating  this  day  after  day. 

51.  Results  of  Training. — The  finest  results  in  training 
fowls  for  exhibition  can  be  attained  only  by  persons  who  are 
well  versed  in  the  demands  of  the  show  room  and  who  have 
developed  considerable  skill  in  training,  either  as  a  result  of 
years  of  experience  or  from  careful  personal  instruction  by 
fanciers  well  informed  in  such  requirements.  All  breeders  may, 
however,  train  their  fowls  so  that  they  will  be  tractable,  easy 
to  handle,  and  so  that  they  will  pose  to  advantage  when  under 
inspection. 

The  good  results  secured  from  training  fowls  may  be  sum- 
marized as  follows; 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT   155 

1.  By  being  taught  to  assume  striking  and  attractive  atti- 
tudes the  moment  any  person  approaches  their  coop,  fowls 
will  be  able  to  show  themselves  off  to  the  best  advantage. 
Fowls  that  draw  their  plumage  together  and  cower  away  from 
the  judge  as  if  frightened  have  little  chance  of  winning  a  prize 
when  in  competition  with  fowls  that  are  better  trained. 

2.  Fowls  become  so  tame  that  they  will  not  struggle  in  the 
least  when  handled  and  will  not  resist  when  any  person  attempts 
to  take  them  from  the  coop.  Fowls  that  are  not  well  trained 
will  resist  any  attempt  to  handle  them  and  will  naturally  have 
little  chance  of  winning  when  the  competition  is  at  all  keen. 
It  is  also  true  that  fowls  that  are  adverse  to  being  handled  at 
home  will  resist  with  energy  any  attempt  on  the  part  of  a 
stranger  to  handle  them  in  the  show  room. 

3.  When  the  wings  are  spread  open  for  inspection,  a  fowl 
that  has  been  properly  trained  will  assist  rather  than  retard 
the  operation,  and  will  thus  receive  better  consideration  from 
the  judge. 

4.  Sometimes  it  is  possible  to  find  a  fowl  so  well  trained 
that  it  is  possible  to  take  it  out  of  its  coop,  place  it  on  a  box 
or  barrel,  and  have  it  remain  posed  in  an  attractive  attitude 
long  enough  to  permit  several  photographs  to  be  made  of  it. 
When  of  good  character,  a  fowl  as  well  trained  as  this  will 
require  a  fowl  of  much  better  form  to  beat  it  in  competition. 


PREPARATION  OF  FOWLS  FOR  THE  SHOW  ROOM 

52.  The  preparation  of  fowls  for  the  show  room,  or  con- 
ditioning, as  it  is  often  called,  is  important,  but  as  Lewis 
Wright,  one  of  the  most  successful  of  English  fanciers,  has 
said,  its  importance  has  been  greatly  exaggerated  by  persons 
who  are  desirous  of  impressing  others  with  their  special  ability 
or  knowledge  of  secrets  along  this  line.  Some  persons  claim 
that  they  can  change  very  inferior  poultry  into  sure  winners 
by  proper  preparation,  and  that  what  they  can  do  in  2  or 
3  weeks  of  conditioning  is  the  main  secret  of  successful  exhibit- 
ing. Though  in  many  cases  special  preparation  for  the  show 
room  is  useful,  it  amounts  to  very  little  in  comparison  with  the 


15G    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT     §3 

value  of  breeding  from  good  stock  and  of  good  general  manage- 
ment. Many  fowls  require  but  little  preparation  for  a  show; 
those  that  require  considerable  preparation  are  not  the  kind 
that  win  prizes  in  shows  where  the  competition  is  at  all  keen. 

To  be  in  first-class  show  condition,  a  fowl  must  be  in  per- 
fect health,  must  be  well  prepared,  must  have  a  proper  amount 
of  flesh,  and  must  have  plimiage  of  practically  perfect  color 
and  markings.  From  this  it  can  be  seen  that  the  proper  prep- 
aration is  but  one  of  the  factors  that  influence  the  value  of  a 
fowl. 

What  is  commonly  known  as  faking  is  dishonest  preparation 
of  fowls  for  the  show  room.  Sometimes  this  is  so  skilfully 
done  that  it  is  impossible  to  detect  the  removal  of  blemishes, 
but  it  is  faking  just  the  same,  and  the  exhibitor  that  prac- 
tices such  methods  acts  unwisely  and  deserves  the  contempt 
of  his  fellow  competitors. 

The  honest  preparation  of  fowls  for  the  show  room  consists 
of  such  manipulation  as  will  bring  out  the  best  of  the  natural 
qualities  of  the  fowl,  such  as  its  true  form  and  color.  Such 
preparation  will  include  cleaning,  grooming,  polishing,  and 
other  means  of  bringing  out  the  best  in  a  fowl;  dishonest 
preparation  begins  whenever  the  breeder  begins  to  remove 
imperfections  by  cutting  or  trimming  sections  that  are  lacking 
in  perfection,  by  dyeing,  bleaching,  or  splicing  plumage,  and, 
so  long  as  color  disqualifications  are  embodied  in  the  standard, 
by  removing  such  feathers  as  would  disqualify  a  fowl  from 
competition. 

The  way  to  win  prizes  in  the  show  room  is  to  hatch  and  raise 
fowls  that  will  possess  to  the  highest  degree  the  best  quality 
that  can  be  produced,  and  after  such  fowls  have  grown  to 
proper  size,  to  care  for  and  prepare  them  honestly  for  the 
show  room. 

53.  Show-Room  Condition. — To  be  in  good  show-room 
condition  a  fowl  must  have  not  only  good  health,  strength, 
vigor,  and  the  excellence  of  color  and  markings  that  go  with 
these  quaHties,  but  every  part  of  it — the  plumage,  the  head 
parts,  the  shanks,  and  the  feet — must  be  absolutely  clean  and 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  '  157 

free  from  parasites,  diseases,  and  deformities.  The  show- 
room condition  of  a  fowl  has  more  influence  on  its  success 
in  a  competition  than  any  other  one  factor,  except  perhaps 
the  barring  to  the  skin  in  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks.  In  the 
scale  of  points  in  the  Standard  of  Perfection  from  four  to  six 
points,  according  to  the  breed,  is  given  as  the  value  of  condition, 
but  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  such  a  small  value  is  given  to  this 
factor,  so  strong  an  influence  does  condition  have  on  the  minds 
of  the  poultry  judges  that  it  is  practically  impossible  for  a  fowl 
in  poor  condition  to  win  when  the  competition  is  at  all  keen. 
It  is  usually  considered  that  the  competition  is  keen  where 
fowls  of  the  highest  character  are  shown.  As  the  standard 
of  exhibition  poultry  advances  from  year  to  year,  the  impor- 
tance of  their  show-room  condition  also  increases. 

Many  exhibitors  make  the  mistake  of  not  having  the  shanks 
and  feet  of  their  fowls  in  the  finest  possible  condition,  and 
many  greatly  coveted  prizes  have  been  lost  because  of  this 
fact.  To  be  in  the  best  show-room  condition,  the  shanks  and 
feet  must  not  only  be  clean  enough  to  appear  clean  to  the 
casual  observer  but  all  dirt  must  be  removed  from  about  and 
beneath  the  scales,  and  all  roughness  and  traces  of  scaly  leg 
must  be  removed.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  no  section 
of  a  fowl  must  be  neglected  if  it  is  desired  to  have  it  in  the  best 
show-room  condition. 

Perhaps  the  most  detestable  form  of  lack  of  condition  in 
fowls  is  the  presence  in  their  feathers  of  parasites  or  insect 
powder.  Even  though  a  fowl  may  possess  unusual  excellence 
in  other  directions,  the  presence  of  either  of  these  conditions 
in  its  plumage  will  often  be  enough  to  tiim  the  tide  of  fortune 
away  from  it.  A  judge  whose  temper  has  been  ruffled  by  para- 
sites crawling  over  his  hands  or  by  having  his  eyes  irritated 
by  insect  powder  from  the  plumage  of  a  fowl,  is  in  no  humor 
to  look  kindly  on  the  fowl.  Such  a  lack  of  condition  is  fre- 
quently the  hidden  cause  of  defeat.  There  is  no  excuse  for 
such  a  condition,  and  no  exhibitor  really  deserves  an  award 
for  fowls  that  are  infested  with  parasites  or  dusted  with  insect 
powder,  because  such  undesirable  conditions  can  be  readily 
removed  in  every  instance  before  the  fowl  is  sent  to  the  show. 


158  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

54.  Cleaning  the  Shanks  and  Feet. — The  process  of 
cleaning  a  fowl  shoiild  begin  with  the  shanks  and  feet,  and 
shoiild  include  the  removal  of  all  particles  of  dirt,  all  discolored 
scales,  and  all  rough  places  on  the  surface.  To  do  this  conve- 
niently, the  fowl  must  be  held  in  some  way  that  will  prevent 
it  from  struggling  to  free  itself  and  thus  possibly  break  its  plu- 
mage. A  cloth  with  holes  for  the  feet  and  suspended  like  a 
hammock  may  be  used,  and  thus  the  attendant  will  have  both  of 
his  hands  free  to  work  with,  and  will  probably  be  able  to  do 
a  better  job  than  would  be  the  case  if  he  were  compelled  to 
hold  a  struggling  fowl  with  one  hand  and  clean  its  shanks 
with  the  other. 

Dry  scales  may  be  removed  with  a  nail  file,  with  an  orange- 
wood  stick,  such  as  is  used  in  manicuring,  with  a  small  paddle 
of  any  kind  of  hard  wood,  or  a  few  of  them  may  be  removed 
with  the  thumb  nail.  Dirt  may  be  removed  from  between 
the  scales  with  a  wooden  toothpick  or  with  any  small,  pointed 
piece  of  wood.  After  the  dirt  and  loose  scales  have  been 
removed,  the  shanks  and  feet  should  be  scrubbed  with  a  stiff 
nail  brush.  Warm  water  and  soap  or  hand  sapolio  are  good 
for  this  purpose,  imless  the  legs  are  very  rough;  in  such  cases 
a  soft  cloth  with  sapoHo  and  a  little  powdered  pimiice  stone 
will  be  found  effective  in  scouring  off  the  rough  spots.  When 
scoiuing,  however,  care  should  be  taken  not  to  break  the  skin 
and  cause  the  blood  to  flow. 

When  the  shanks  and  feet  have  been  thoroughly  washed 
and  scoured,  they  should  be  rinsed  perfectly  clean,  dried  with 
a  soft  cloth,  and  dressed  carefully  with  a  solution  of  equal 
parts  of  alcohol  and  olive  oil.  Care  should  be  taken  not  to 
soil  the  plumage  of  fowls  with  this  solution  if  they  are  not 
to  be  washed  afterwards,  but  in  the  case  of  fowls  that  are 
to  be  washed  this  does  not  matter.  The  more  tender  the 
shanks  and  feet  have  been  made  by  the  cleaning  process,  the 
more  thoroughly  they  should  be  anointed  with  the  lotion  of 
alcohol  and  olive  oil.  Sometimes  it  will  be  advisable  to  make 
several  applications  of  this  lotion  before  the  fowl  is  washed.  If 
evidence  of  continued  tenderness  is  shown,  the  shanks  should  be 
treated  with  carbolated  vaseline  twice  in  24  hours  before  washing. 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  159 

55.  Washing  a  Fowl. — ^When  properly  done,  a  thorough 
washing  of  the  plumage  of  a  fowl  will  bring  out  its  finer  qual- 
ities and  make  it  appear  to  better  advantage.  White-plumaged 
fowls  are  greatly  improved  by  washing;  immaculate  cleanliness 
is  an  absolute  necessity  when  such  fowls  are  on  exhibition. 
Fowls  that  should  have  a  fliiify  appearance  when  shown, 
such  as  the  Cochin,  are  greatly  benefited  by  washing.  Such 
fowls  may  have  several  washings.  This  will  soften  the  down, 
or  under  plumage,  and  when  it  dries  the  fhiS.  will  be  enlarged 
to  such  an  extent  that  the  fowls  will  appear  larger,  and  much 
more  rounded  in  contour.  To  a  certain  extent,  the  same  effect 
can  be  produced  by  several  washings  of  fowls  of  any  breed. 

When  a  fowl  is  washed  for  exhibition  it  must  be  entirely 
freed  from  dirt  on  the  plumage  down  to  the  skin,  the  skin  must 
be  cleaned,  and  every  particle  of  dirt  must  be  cleaned  from  the 
head,  shanks,  and  feet. 

56.  To  wash  a  fowl  properly,  it  is  necessary  to  pay  atten- 
tion to  certain  details:  (1)  The  feathers  should  first  be  thor- 
oughly softened  in  warm  water ;  (2)  the  soap  should  be  worked 
well  down  into  the  plumage  and  onto  the  skin;  (3)  all  the  dirt 
should  be  loosened  from  the  pliimage;  (4)  every  particle  of 
dirt  and  soap  should  be  rinsed  from  the  plumage;  (5)  the  plu- 
mage should  be  properly  dried  after  being  washed.  The  great- 
est difficulty  in  washing  will  be  found  in  removing  all  the  dirt 
from  the  imder  part  of  the  body  and  on  the  abdomen  below 
the  tail  feathers. 

Three  tubs  of  water  will  be  needed  for  washing  the  plumage. 
One  of  them  should  contain  water  heated  to  from  105°  to 
110°  F.  The  water  in  this  tub  must  not  be  hot  enough  to 
scald  the  skin  of  a  fowl  or  to  loosen  the  feathers,  but  it  must 
be  hot  enough  to  soften  the  feathers  and  prevent  them  from 
breaking  dimng  the  washing.  The  second  tub  should  be 
filled  with  water  heated  to  80°  F.  The  third  tub  should  be 
filled  with  cool  or  cold  water  at  the  temperature  at  which  it 
comes  from  the  faucet  or  well.  Some  persons  prefer  to  have 
the  chill  taken  off  the  water  in  the  third  tub,  claiming  that 
undesirable  results  have  been  obtained  from  using  cold  water. 


160   STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

Though  some  unfortunate  effects  may  have  resulted  from  this, 
it  is  significant  that  most  of  the  successful  breeders  in  the 
country  use  cold  water  for  the  final  rinsing  and  are  strongly 
in  favor  of  its  tonic  effect.  The  temperature  of  the  room  where 
the  washing  is  to  be  done  should  be  about  70°  F.,  and  the 
temperature  of  the  room  in  which  the  fowls  are  to  be  dried 
should  range  from  80°  to  85°  F. 

It  will  usually  be  found  covenient  to  wash  most  fowls  on  a 
Friday  morning,  because  most  poultry  shows  begin  on  Tuesday, 
and,  unless  the  distances  are  great,  the  fowls  are  shipped  on 
Monday.  If  the  first  washing  of  any  fowl  proves  unsuccessful 
there  is  then  a  chance  to  repeat  the  washing  on  Saturday,  and 
again  on  Sunday  if  necessary. 

57.  The  fowl  to  be  washed  should  first  be  completely 
immersed  in  the  warm  water  several  times,  until  the  feathers 
are  thoroughly  water  soaked.  Then  the  feathers  shoxild  be 
rubbed  with  soap  of  the  soft,  floating  kind,  which  is  best 
because  it  can  be  more  easily  rinsed  from  the  pliunage  than  most 
other  kinds.  The  soap  should  be  worked  down  into  the  feathers 
and  on  to  the  skin  with  the  fingers  of  both  hands,  and  every 
part  of  the  plumage  should  be  rubbed  with  the  soap  and  water 
until  the  feathers  are  full  of  a  thick  lather.  If  this  is  done 
carefully  there  will  be  no  danger  of  breaking  the  feathers. 
This  rubbing  and  washing  should  be  continued  until  all  the 
dirt  has  been  removed  or  loosened  from  the  plumage.  Then 
as  much  as  possible  of  the  dirt  and  soap  should  be  rinsed  out  in 
this  first  water.  There  is  no  need  of  being  fearful  of  immersing 
the  head  of  a  fowl  in  the  soapy  water,  or  of  splashing  this  water 
in  its  mouth.  The  soap  and  water  will  not  do  it  any  harm,  but 
will,  on  the  contrary,  tend  to  clean  out  its  digestive  organs. 

The  next  step  is  to  transfer  the  fowl  to  the  tub  of  lukewarm 
water  and  thoroughly  rinse  it.  All  of  the  remaining  dirt  and 
soap  should  be  removed  in  this  second  water.  The  fowl  should 
be  lifted  out  of  the  liikewarm  water  and  held  for  a  few  moments 
to  allow  the  water  to  drain  from  the  feathers.  Then  it  should 
be  immersed  several  times  in  the  third  tub  containing  the  cold 
water.     This  will  serve  to  harden  the  fowl  and  prevent  it  from 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  161 

catching  cold,  and  will  also  help  to  rinse  out  any  last  particles 
of  soap  or  dirt  that  may  remain  after  the  first  two  rinsings. 

As  soon  as  the  fowl  is  removed  from  the  water  for  the  last 
time,  all  the  moisture  that  can  be  absorbed  from  the  plimiage 
with  a  sponge  should  be  removed  in  this  way,  and  then  towels 
or  soft  white  cloths  should  be  used  to  remove  as  much  as  pos- 
sible of  what  remains.  The  rubbing  should  always  be  with 
the  lay  of  the  feathers,  so  as  to  avoid  mussing  or  breaking  them. 
After  this  drjdng  the  fowl  should  be  placed  in  a  clean  coop,  the 
floor  of  which  is  thickly  Httered  with  clean,  dry  straw,  and  con- 
fined there  tmtil  the  plumage  is  perfectly  dry. 


58.  When  only  a  few  fowls  have  to  be  dried,  they  are  some- 
times placed  where  artificial  heat,  such  as  that  from  an  open 
fireplace,  a  stove,  or  a  very  warm  steam  radiator,  may  be  used 
to  assist  the  drying,  though  they  should  not  be  placed  near 
enough  to  run  a  chance  of  being  scorched.  To  confine  a  fowl 
where  it  may  get  the 
full  advantage  of  such 
heat  it  is  customary 
to  place  it  in  a  clean 
box,  with  a  slatted 
or  screened  front 
toward  the  source  of 
heat ;  or  an  exhibition 
coop,  a  shipping  box, 
or  a  hamper  may  be 
used. 

A  dr3dng  box  made 
especially  for  drying 
fowls  after  they  have 
been  washed  is  shown 
in  Fig.  3.  This  is 
^   feet   high,  3   feet  fig.  3 

long,  and  2|  feet  wide,  and  will  accommodate  three  or 
four  fowls.  The  box  has  a  screen  door  and  a  curtain  in  the 
front.  The  door  serves  to  confine  the  fowls  and  keeps  the  cur- 
tain from  blowing  in  on  the  lamp,  and  when  let  down  in  front 


162  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

of  the  box  the  curtain  serves  to  keep  the  heat  in,  but  allows 
enough  circulation  of  air  to  prevent  suffocation.  A  lamp  sup- 
plies the  artificial  heat,  and  a  galvanized-iron  radiator  above 
it  distributes  the  heat  evenly  throughout  the  box.  The  lamp 
should  always  be  kept  turned  very  low,  because  but  little  heat 
is  needed  to  dry  the  fowls',  and  it  is  very  undesirable  to  have 
the  lamp  smoke.  The  screen  above  the  radiator  is  made  of 
heavy  close-mesh  wire  screen  (about  4  meshes  to  the  inch)  and 
prevents  the  fowls  from  jumping  on  the  radiator  and  burning 
their  feet.  A  roost  for  the  fowls  should  be  placed  6  or  8  inches 
above  the  screen. 

59.  If  the  washing  has  been  well  done,  after  the  feathers 
are  dry  they  will  be  pure  and  clean,  and  will  have  a  bright, 
glossy  appearance.  If  any  soap  remains  in  the  plumage,  the 
feathers  are  apt  to  cling  together  and  both  the  web  of  the  sur- 
face feathers  and  the  imder  fluff  will  have  an  unattractive 
appearance.  In  such  cases  it  will  be  necessary  to  re  wash  the 
fowl,  though  no  more  soap  will  be  needed  in  the  second  wash- 
ing unless  the  feathers  have  not  been  well  cleaned  in  the  first. 

It  is  not  unusual  for  fowls  to  faint  during  the  process  of  wash- 
ing. When  this  occurs,  it  is  most  likely  to  happen  just  as  the 
fowls  are  first  immersed  in  the  water.  Although  fainting  is 
not  of  common  occurrence,  it  is  always  well  to  be  prepared  for 
such  an  emergency.  The  best  thing  to  do  when  a  fowl  faints 
is  immediately  to  dash  cold  water  in  its  face,  shake  it  a  little, 
and  hold  its  head  erect.  In  the  greater  number  of  instances 
this  will  revive  the  fowl  almost  instantly.  When  the  water 
used  is  very  cold  and  the  fowls  to  be  washed  are  not  of  the 
most  rugged  kind,  a  teaspoonful  of  half  water  and  half  whisky, 
poured  down  each  fowl's  throat  just  before  washing  will  pre- 
vent it  from  becoming  chilled  or  taking  cold. 

60.  Many  exhibitors  wash  the  plumage  of  Leghorns, 
Minorcas,  and  other  close-  or  tight-plumaged  fowls  by  merely 
going  over  the  surface  with  a  sponge  or  soft  brush  dipped  in 
soap  and  water.  Though  this  superficial  washing  will  improve 
the  appearance  of  the  fowls,  it  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  washing 
them  in  a  tub,  and  is  not  to  be  recommiended. 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  163 

When  fowls  such  as  the  Leghorns  and  Minorcas  are  washed, 
the  long  sickle  feathers  of  the  tail  should  be  laid  on  a  smooth, 
clean  board  and  carefully  washed  with  a  brush  and  soap  and 
water,  the  rubbing  always  being  done  with  the  lay  of  the 
feathers.  Before  such  feathers  have  become  perfectly  dry, 
all  wrinkles  and  curves  shoiild  be  smoothed  out  of  them  with  a 
soft,  dry  brush. 

When  the  long  sickle  feathers  on  a  fowl  become  ruffled  or 
disarranged  they  may  be  restored  to  their  proper  shape  by 
proper  ironing.  The  feathers,  one  at  a  time,  should  be  straight- 
ened out,  placed  between  damp  white  cloths  on  a  smooth  sur- 
face, several  thicknesses  of  cloth  should  be  placed  on  top,  and 
then  a  warm  flat  iron  passed  over  the  upper  layer  of  cloth  and 
considerable  pressure  applied  with  the  hand.  The  layers  of 
cloth  next  to  the  feather  are  moistened  so  that  the  web  will  be 
properly  softened.  The  layer  of  cloth  on  top  of  the  feather 
shoiild  be  thick  enough  to  prevent  the  feather  from  drying, 
curHng,  or  burning.  The  warm  iron  passing  over  the  top  of 
the  cloth  drives  heat  down  through  the  moisture,  slightly 
steams  the  feather,  thus  softening  it  and  making  it  very  sus- 
ceptible to  the  smoothing  action  of  the  pressure  from  the  iron. 
As  soon  as  the  moisture  leaves  the  feather  it  will  be  set  in  the 
position  in  which  it  was  pressed.  Hence  the  importance  of 
getting  the  feather  well  smoothed  out  before  pressing  it.  It 
is  seldom  necessary  to  use  such  extreme  measures  in  smoothing 
out  a  feather. 

61.  Clearing  Tip  White  Plumage. — To  clear  up  the  plu- 
mage of  white  fowls,  that  is,  to  counteract  any  slight  yellowish 
tinge  of  the  feathers,  it  is  a  common  practice  to  add  a  little  of  the 
very  best  quality  of  bluing  (indigo  or  soluble  Prussian  blue), 
the  same  as  is  used  for  washing  clothes,  to  the  tub  of  Cold 
water  in  which  they  are  rinsed.  Only  a  very  small  quantity 
of  the  bluing  should  be  used,  merely  enough  to  impart  a  sHght 
bluish  cast  to  the  water — ^not  enough  to  color  it  blue.  The 
object  in  using  this  is  merely  to  clear  up  the  color  of  the  feathers, 
not  to  dye  them,  and  it  is  better  to  use  none  at  all  than  to  use 
so  much  that  the  feathers  will  appear  blue  when  dry.     It 


164  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  best  way  to  secure 
white-plumaged  fowls  is  to  breed  them  pure  white  and  not  to 
attempt  to  produce  the  white  by  chemical  action.  Some  not 
only  destroy  the  colors  in  the  plumage  of  their  fowls  by  chem- 
icals, but  also  sometimes  destroy  the  feathers  themselves. 

62.     Improveraeiit  of  Gloss  of  PliLinage  by  Polisliiiig. 

The  gloss  of  pliimage  of  fowls  may  be  improved  by  polishing,  or 
rubbing,  the  feathers  the  right  way  of  the  web  with  a  soft 
woolen  cloth,  chamois  skin,  or  piece  of  silk.  Such  polishing 
of  the  plumage  is  useful  just  before  the  fowls  are  to  be  sent  to 
a  show,  or  directly  after  they  have  been  given  a  thorough 
washing. 

Fowls  like  the  Cochins  and  the  Wyandottes,  which  are  much 
improved  by  a  fluffy  appearance  in  their  feathers,  should  not 
.have  their  feathers  polished.  This  fluffiness,  or  ftdness  of 
appearance,  may  be  improved  by  ruffling  the  feathers  the 
wrong  way,  that  is,  by  drawing  the  fingers  through  them 
from  the  rear  end  of  the  fowl  toward  the  head. 


TEANSPORTATION  AND  SHOW-ROOM 
MANAGEMENT 


SHIPPING  FOWLS  TO  A  SHOW 

63.  It  is  always  the  best  practice  to  ship  fowls  to  the  show 
room  in  boxes,  baskets,  or  hampers,  that  contain  only  one  fowl, 
or  that  are  divided  into  compartments  that  contain  only  one 
fowl  each.  These  packages,  or  each  compartment  of  a  pack- 
age, should  be  plainly  labeled  with  the  proper  entry  card.  If 
these  precautions  are  taken  the  exhibitor  will  have  little  trouble 
in  having  his  fowls  properly  cooped  at  a  show.  These  pre- 
cautions are  particularly  important  to  observe  when  fowls  are 
shipped  to  shows  where  no  exhibitor  is  permitted  to  coop  his 
own  fowls  or  to  see  them  in  the  show  prior  to  their  being 
judged.  When  the  owner,  manager,  or  attendant  goes  with 
the  fowls  and  coops  them  himself  it  is  not  necessary  to  take 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  165 

such  precautions.  It  is  safe  to  ship  a  pen  of  one  male  and 
four  females  in  a  box,  basket,  or  hamper,  because  they  will  all 
be  placed  inside  of  one  coop  when  they  arrive  at  the  show  room. 

64.  Sliipping  Coops  and  Baskets. — Special  attention 
should  be  given  to  the  construction  of  shipping  coops  or  boxes 
that  are  to  be  used  for  shipping  poultry  to  a  show.  They  should 
be  made  of  sufficient  'height  so  that  the  head  of  the  fowl  will 
not  strike  against  the  top,  and  thus  make  an  injury  to  the  comb 
very  probable.  A  solid  lid  is  better  than  a  slatted  one,  because 
a  fowl  is  apt  to  reach  out  between  the  slats  and  have  its  comb 
or  some  other  part  of  its  head  injured.  To  accommodate  the 
largest  males  comfortably,  a  coop  should  be  30  inches  high, 
but  for  females  and  for  males  of  smaller  size  the  coops  need  not 
be  so  high. 


Three  styles  of  shipping  coops  are  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The 
large  coop  shown  in  (a)  has  a  solid  lid,  is  30  inches  high, 
22  inches  long,  and  14  inches  wide,  and  is  well  suited  for  males 
of  the  larger  breeds.  The  mediimi-sized  coop  shown  in  (6)  has 
a  slatted  top,  is  26  inches  high,  22  inches  long,  and  14  inches 
wide,  and  is  often  used  for  males  of  the  smaller  breeds  and  for 
females  of  all  varieties,  but  it  can  be  improved  by  providing 
it  with  a  solid  lid.  The  small  cubical-shaped  coop  shown  in  (c) 
is  14  inches  square  and  is  intended  for  a  bantam.  The  end 
pieces  of  this  box  extend  |  inch  above  the  sides,  and  when  the 


166  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

top  is  nailed  down  ventilation  is  secured  through  the  openings 
on  the  sides.  This  same  construction  may  also  be  applied  to 
the  boxes  shown  in  (a)  and  (b) . 

Box  coops,  such  as  those  shown  in  Fig.  4,  should  be  made  of 
|-inch  lumber  planed  on  both  sides.  The  comer  posts  should 
be  1,  1|,  or  1|  inches  square,  according  to  the  size  of  the  box, 
and  the  floor  should  be  securely  fastened  to  cleats  between  the 
comer  posts.  A  shipping  coop  should  be  as  light  in  weight 
as  possible,  but  it  should  not  be  so  frail  as  to  endanger  the 
safety  of  a  fowl  in  transit  or  to  cause  the  transportation  com- 
pany to  make  an  extra  charge  because  of  its  fragility.  Care 
should  always  be  taken  to  nail  cleats  about  the  top  and  bottom 
outside  of  the  coop.  Such  cleats  will  prevent  the  coops  from 
being  too  closely  crowded  together  during  transit,  and  thus 
aid  in  preventing  the  fowls  from  suffering  for  a  lack  of  air. 
Other  styles  of  shipping  coops  are  made  of  paper  and  wood. 

65.  Willow  baskets  and  hampers  are  largely  used  in  Eng- 
land both  for  shipping  poultry  to  shows  and  to  all  parts  of  the 
world.  There,  it  is  the  custom  for  a  person  who  buys  fowls 
from  another  and  has  them  shipped  to  him  in  baskets  or  ham- 
pers to  return  the  packages  to  the  shipper.  Round  baskets 
of  different  styles  of  weaves  and  of  different  sizes  are  shown  in 


Fig.  5.  It  will  be  noted  that  their  tops  are  hinged  across  the 
center  and  that  the  lid  is  fastened  down  with  a  strap.  Some- 
times a  lock  is  used.  The  larger  basket  at  the  left  in  Fig.  5 
will  carry  a  trio  of  Cochins,  four  Cochin  hens,  or  six  females 
of  smaller  size.  Though  a  basket  of  this  size  might  not  answer 
for  shipping  so  many  fowls  a  long  distance,  it  does  very  well 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  .167 

for  shipping  that  many  short  distances  like  those  common  in 
England.  The  smaller  basket  on  the  right  is  intended  for  car- 
rying single  fowls. 

Round  willow  baskets  are  ordinarily  made  in  the  following 
sizes:  For  bantams,  18  inches  in  diameter  and  18  inches  in 
height;  for  pullets,  20  inches  in  diameter  and  20  inches  in 
height;  for  cockerels,  22  inches  in  diameter  and  22  inches 
in  height;  for  large  fowls,  24  inches  in  diameter  and  24  inches 
in  height,  and  also  26  inches  in  diameter  and  26  inches  in 
height. 

These  baskets  are  made  of  willow  branches  from  which  the 
bark  has  been  removed.  When  the  willow  is  left  in  its  natural 
color,  the  baskets  are  called  buff  willow  baskets ;  when  they  are 
stained  and  varnished  they  are  called  stained  wiUow  baskets. 


Long,  hamper-like  baskets,  such  as  those  shown  in  Figs.  6 
and  7,  and  which  are  divided  into  compartments,  are  made  in 
many  sizes  and  are  used  for  the  transportation  of  all  kinds  of 
fowls.  The  basket  shown  in  Fig.  6  is  intended  for  bantams, 
and  is  more  closely  woven  than  the  larger  basket  shown  in 


168   STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

Fig.  7.  Fine-woven  baskets  are  also  used  for  pigeons.  The 
basket  shown  in  Fig.  6  is  divided  into  four  compartments  a, 
each  of  which  is  12  inches  long,  9  inches  wide,  and  12  inches 
deep.  The  outside  measurements  of  the  basket  are :  38|  inches 
long,  14|  inches  wide  at  the  top,  and  13  inches  wide  at  the  bot- 
tom, and  14^  inches  deep.  Each  of  the  compartments  has  a 
separate  lid  a  under  the  main  lid  of  the  basket  and  can  be  opened 
independently  of  the  main  Hd,  in  order  that  the  fowls  may  be 
removed  one  at  a  time  without  danger  of  the  others  escaping. 


The  outside  lid  is  fastened  down  by  three  chains  and  locks. 
All  of  the  basket,  with  the  exception  of  the  lid,  is  covered  with 
canvas  to  prevent  the  fowls  from  sticking  their  heads  out 
and  to  keep  dirt  from  their  plumage. 

The  basket  shown  in  Fig.  7  is  intended  for  fowls  of  the  larger 
sizes,  and  may  be  made  in  a  great  variety  of  dimensions.  For 
females  of  the  larger  type,  each  compartment  is  usually  18 
inches  long,  10  inches  wide,  and  18  inches  deep.  For  males, 
each  compartment  is  usually  made  21  inches  long,  11  inches 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT   169 

wide,  and  21  inches  deep.  The  size  of  such  baskets  will  nattirally 
be  regulated  by  the  size  of  the  fowls  they  are  intended  to 
accommodate  and  the  number  of  compartments  they  contain. 
Each  compartment  has  a  separate  lid  a.  The  basket  is  lined 
inside  with  canvas  or  cloth  of  some  kind,  and  the  material  that 
lines  the  lid  shoidd  be  waterproof. 

In  addition  to  insuring  greater  safety  in  the  cooping  of  fowls 
at  a  show,  the  use  of  single  coops,  or  of  single  compartments 
for  each  fowl  in  a  basket,  also  prevents  the  fowls  from  tram- 
pling on  and  soiling  or  injuring  one  another,  and  tight  sides 
prevent  the  fowl  from  becoming  injiu-ed  from  outside  sources. 
Long  tails  or  sickle  feathers  that  protrude  outside  of  a  coop 
are  apt  to  be  broken,  and  protruding  heads  are  also  apt  to  be 
injured. 

The  ventilation  of  the  shipping  coops  shotdd  receive  par- 
ticular attention.  More  ventilation  will  be  needed  during 
warm  weather  than  during  cold  weather.  When  the  weather 
is  extremely  cold  it  is  often  advisable  to  fasten  muslin  over  all 
openings  in  a  coop.  It  should  always  be  borne  in  mind,  how- 
ever, that  there  is  far  greater  danger  that  the  fowls  will  suffer 
from  a  lack  of  air  during  transit  than  that  they  will  get  too 
much  air  or  suffer  from  cold. 

66.  Litter  and  Water  in  Coops. — The  bottom  of  each 
shipping  coop  should  be  covered  with  2  or  3  inches  of  litter 
before  a  fowl  is  placed  in  it.  This  litter  may  consist  of  chaff 
from  hay  or  straw,  finely  cut  straw,  clean  hay,  cut  hay  of  any 
kind,  or  plain  shavings  or  sawdust.  The  materials  are  named 
in  the  order  of  their  value.  The  shavings  or  sawdust  should 
be  used  only  when  none  of  the  others  can  be  had.  ■  All  litter 
should  be  dry,  and  special  care  should  be  taken  to  select  clean, 
dry  material  for  litter  that  is  placed  in  coops  that  are  to  house 
white  fowls;  nothing  that  will  stain  their  plumage  should  be 
used,  and  care  should  also  be  taken  to  see  that  the  inside  of 
the  coops  should  be  perfectly  clean. 

No  drink  of  any  kind  should  be  placed  in  a  coop  during  transit. 
Fowls  should  be  plentifully  fed  and  watered  before  they  are 
put  into  shipping  coops,  and  when  this  is  attended  to  they  will 


170  STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

need  no  more  feed  or  drink  for  24  hours.  If  the  journey  is 
apt  to  last  longer  than  one  day,  a  large  piece  of  dry  bread  and 
one-half  of  an  apple  of  medium  size  may  be  placed  in  the 
coop;  these  will  supply  a  fowl  with  sufficient  feed  and  mois- 
ture for  another  day.  When  fowls  are  sent  on  trips  that  will 
keep  them  in  transit  for  more  than  2  days,  they  must  be  fed 
and  watered  during  the  journey  by  an  attendant,  who  can  do 
this  without  the  least  chance  of  soiling  their  plumage. 


MANAGEMENT  IN  A  SHOW  ROOM 

67.  The  most  important  things  to  watch  while  fowls  are 
in  the  show  room  are  that  too  much  feed  and  water  are 
not  given  as  soon  as  they  are  taken  from  the  shipping  coops, 
and  that  nothing  but  simple  feeds  are  fed  during  the  entire 
show.  It  is  unfortunate  that  many  fowls  are  carelessly  fed 
and  watered  as  soon  as  they  are  received  in  the  show  room. 
Such  a  practice  often  leads  to  unsatisfactory  results.  If  a 
fowl  has  all  the  food  and  water  it  will  swallow  as  soon  as 
it  is  taken  from  the  shipping  coop,  it  is  almost  sure  to  gorge 
itself  to  such  an  extent  that  it  will  change  its  form,  and  the 
chances  of  victory  in  a  close  competition  will  be  greatly  reduced. 
Bantams  gorged  in  this  way  can  seldom,  if  ever,  win  a  prize. 
The  only  way  to  prevent  an  occurrence  of  this  kind  is  either 
to  have  the  owner  present  when  the  fowls  are  taken  from  their 
shipping  coops,  or  to  have  strict  rules  in  the  show  room  that 
prohibit  the  filling  of  the  feed  or  water  cups  prior  to  judging. 
A  small  quantity  of  both  feed  and  water  may  be  given  to  the 
fowls  as  soon  as  they  are  placed  in  the  show  coops,  but  it  is 
better  to  give  them  none  at  all  than  to  allow  them  to  gorge 
themselves. 

It  is  necessary  that  fowls  in  a  show  room  have  only  simple 
feeds,  in  order  that  they  may  retain  their  health  and  form. 
Fowls  intended  for  use  later  in  the  breeding  pens  will  be  kept 
in  better  condition  for  breeding  if  nothing  but  stale  bread 
and  a  little  wheat  is  fed  from  the  time  they  are  judged  until 
they  are  returned  home,  than  if  other  feeds  are  given.  The 
feeding  of  com  and  other  rich  feeds  to  fowls  in  the  show  room 


§  3    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT  171 

causes  much  injtu-y.  If  meat,  cut  green  bone,  and  various  pre- 
pared foods  are  fed  the  digestive  organs  will  become  deranged, 
and  fowls  so  fed  frequently  retiun  home  from  the  show  room 
in  such  a  weakened  condition  that  they  seldom,  if  ever,  recover. 
Less  and  plainer  feed  is  desirable  in  the  show  room  and  in  the 
breeding  pen. 

68.  Retouching  Fowls  in  the  Show  Room. — As  immac- 
ulate condition  is  one  of  the  most  desirable  features  of  exhibition 
poultry,  no  specks  or  spots  of  dirt  that  may  have  been  gathered 
in  transit  should  be  permitted  on  the  plxmiage  of  fowls  in  a  show. 
After  fowls  have  reached  a  show,  any  spots  or  dirt  on  the 
plumage,  shanks,  or  feet  of  dark-plumaged  fowls  may  be 
removed  with  alcohol.  Similar  spots  on  the  plumage  of  white- 
or  buif-plumaged  fowls  may  be  removed  with  ether  or  gasoline. 
Yellow  beeswax  dissolved  in  alcohol  makes  a  suitable  polish 
for  brightening  the  shanks  and  feet.  A  very  little  of  this 
should  be  poured  on  a  clean  woolen  cloth  and  the  shanks  and 
toes  rubbed  briskly  with  it.  No  coloring  matter  of  any  kind 
should  ever  be  used  on  the  shanks  and  feet,  as  this  would  be 
faking  of  the  worst  kind. 

CARE  OF  FOWLS  AFTER  A  SHOW 

69.  Fowls  that  have  just  returned  from  a  show  require  spe- 
cial care  for  a  time,  in  order  to  maintain  their  health.  The  week 
or  10  days  that  they  have  been  confined  in  a  small  coop  while 
journeying  to  and  from  the  show  and  while  on  exhibition,  the 
sudden  changes  from  a  warm  room  to  the  outside  cold,  the 
nervous  strain  caused  by  the  excitement  in  the  show  room, 
the  jolting  during  transportation,  and  other  factors,  all  tend 
materially  to  reduce  their  vitality.  To  relieve  the  nervous 
strain  they  have  been  under  and  to  enable  them  to  regain  their 
normal  condition  as  speedily  as  possible,  fowls  just  home  from 
a  show  should  have  gentle  treatment  and  a  gradual  change 
from  show  conditions  to  the  more  natiiral  conditions  of  the 
breeding  pen. 

As  soon  as  the  fowls  reach  home  from  a  show  they  should 
be  placed  in  comfortable  pens  and  fed.  For  the  first  meal 
they  should  have  a  moderate  quantity  of  stale  bread  that  has 


172    STANDARD-BRED  POULTRY  MANAGEMENT    §  3 

been  soaked  in  sweet  milk  and  then  the  milk  pressed  from  the 
bread  imtil  the  latter  is  fairly  crumbly.  A  small  quantity  of 
this  twice  a  day  for  the  first  2  or  3  days  after  returning, 
together  with  a  reasonable  quantity  of  cracked  com  and 
wheat  at  night  for  the  third  meal,  should  constitute  the  ration 
for  the  fowls.     After  this  they  may  be  fed  as  usual. 

After  fowls  retiim  home  from  a  show  they  should  be  con- 
fined inside  of  their  breeding  pens  for  several  days.  They 
should  not  be  permitted  to  run  outside  for  at  least  a  week. 
Too  much  freedom  after  their  long  confinement  in  the  shipping 
and  show  coops  is  likely  to  have  a  bad  effect  on  them.  The 
floors  of  the  house  in  which  they  are  placed  should  be  covered 
with  straw  Htter  and  the  fowls  should  be  protected  from  snow, 
damp,  and  rain  for  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  enable  them 
to  become  hardened  to  their  surroundings. 


POULTRY  JUDGING 


PRACTICE  OF  JUDGING 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION 

1.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  both  in  England  and  in 
America  there  are  sets  of  definite  descriptions,  called  stand- 
ards, and  rules  governing  the  placing  of  awards  on  poultry, 
there  exists  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  how  this  work  shall 
be  done.  Though  the  standards  are  apparently  clear  and 
concise,  different  persons  will  apply  them  differently,  due 
largely  to  the  fact  that  they  have  strong  personal  preferences 
for  some  particular  point  or  points  on  which  they  place  exag- 
gerated value.  No  one  has  given  more  consideration  to  this 
subject  than  the  late  Lewis  Wright,  who,  in  his  introduction 
to  the  Poultry  Club  Standards,  discusses  it  as  follows: 

"When  three  or  four  good  judges  of  any  particular  variety 
of  fowls  assemble  before  a  few  good  specimens,  it  will  gen- 
erally be  found  that  they  agree  in  their  conclusions  as  to  which 
are  first,  second,  and  third  best.  There  are,  of  course,  excep- 
tions; there  may  be  some  strong  personal  interest,  and  some 
people  have  a  specially  favorite  point ;  and  there  are  occasional 
cases  of  real  doubt,  when  it  is  very  difficult  balancing  one  point 
against  another,  to  decide  which  really  is  best.  But,  as  a 
rule,  when  none  have  any  personal  interest  in  the  exhibits, 
there  will  be  substantial  agreement,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that 
one  bird  may  be  the  best  in  one  point,  and  some  other  in 
another,  none  being  alike  in  all. 

173 


174  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

"As  there  are  many  points  to  be  taken  account  of  in  every 
fowl,  such  a  simple  fact  as  this  shows  that  there  is  some  pro- 
portion generally  accepted,  however  tacitly  and  roughly, 
between  the  judging  value  of  those  points,  or  of  defects  in  them. 
For  the  general  opinion,  united  in  as  above,  does  not  depend 
upon  the  best  bird  being  the  best  in  any  one  cardinal  point: 
otherwise  a  class  of  twenty  could  be  judged  in  ten  minutes. 
However  insensibly  and  informally  it  may  be  done,  the  aggre- 
gate of  points  or  defects  has  to  be  weighed,  and  it  is  acknowl- 
edged by  all  that  excellence  or  defect  in  some  points  is  not  of 
so  much  importance  as  ^'n  others 

"So  much  being  beyond  dispute,  a  Standard  of  Perfection 
is  framed  on  the  supposition  that  this  relative  value  of  points, 
these  being  first  carefully  defined,  is  capable  of  being  repre- 
sented by  nimibers,  and  that  it  is  desirable  for  it  to  be  so  rep- 
resented. The  desirability  of  it  appears  after  a  very  little 
reflection.  While  agreement  is  general,  as  before  stated,  and 
real  public  opinion  at  any  great  show  is  practically  unanimous 
in  nearly  every  case,  the  actual  awards,  which  involve  much  in 
many  ways,  are  made  by  individuals :  and  some  individuals  have 
strong  personal  preferences  for  some  particular  point.  Passing 
by  any  regrettable  cases  of  corruption  or  inability  about  which 
nothing  can  be  said,  when  public  opinion  is  affronted  at  a 
show  it  is  often  due  to  some  strong  idiosyncrasy  of  the  par- 
ticular judge.  It  can  be  seen  that  he  had  attached  to  some 
particular  point  an  exaggerated  value.  Every  breeder  remem- 
bers instances  of  this.  General  opinion  condemns  such  an 
award:  and  it  is  obviously  desirable  that  in  a  Standard  of 
Perfection  the  generally  recognized  true  value  of  points  should 
be  laid  down  as  a  standard  to  which  reference  and  appeal  can 
be  made. 

"The  Standard  aims  first  at  correctly  describing  the  varieties 
treated  of  in  language  as  simple  and  comprehensive  as  pos- 
sible. In  the  second  place,  it  aims  to  lay  down  the  fair  pro- 
portionate value  that  general  opinion  assigns  to  any  defects 
in  the  various  points.  It  is  hoped  that  qualified  judges  will 
recognize  and  respect  these  proportionate  values  thus  arrived 
at  and  not  arbitrarily  upset  them  by  notions  of  their  own: 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  175 

though  it  is  not  likely,  nor  perhaps  desirable,  that  birds  shoiild 
be  systematically  'scored'  by  them  and  prizes  awarded  accord- 
ingly. This  has  been  done  in  America  for  years,  but  it  is 
becoming  more  doubtful  whether  the  system  will  continue, 
the  larger  shows  being  now  judged  otherwise.  The^  proper 
use  of  a  standard  is  not  to  give  birds  a  score,  but  to  place 
them  in  correct  order  of  merit.  It  must  never  be  forgotten 
that  small  deductions  or  cuts  for  conspicuous  defects  cannot 
do  this.  The  figures  in  the  'points'  are  meant  to  express  what 
ought  to  be  deducted  from  the  standard  100  points  for  as  much 
fault  in  the  points  named  as  can  exist  and  still  leave  a  bird  in 
competition.  Not  as  much  as  possible,  by  any  means;  for 
instance,  if  the  point  be  the  comb,  and  10  points  are  allowed, 
a  comb  bad  beyond  a  certain  degree  would  throw  a  bird  entirely 
out,  and  not  be  deducted  for.  The  meaning  is  that  if  the 
faulty  comb  still  leaves  the  bird  a  chance,  the  10  should  be 
deducted :  and  less  for  slighter  defects,  perhaps  even  only  1  or 
I  a  point  for  very  slight  defects.  But  for  glaring  faults  serious 
cuts  should  be  made  if  the  standard  is  to  serve  its  purpose. 

"In  careful  comparison  in  close  cases,  one  bird  should  not 
be  first  tabulated  or  scored,  and  then  the  other.  In  passing 
from  one  to  the  other  the  eye  is  not  trustworthy,  if  this  method 
be  followed.  The  two  combs  should  be  compared  and  cut 
first,  then  the  two  hackles,  and  other  points  in  succession. 
In  this  way  a  real  comparison  is  made,  and  the  birds,  fairly 
cut,  compared  with  one  another.  An  experience  of  years 
assures  me  that  close  comparison  cannot  be  made  in  any  other 
way;  but  that  in  this  way  it  can  be  made  most  effective." 

2.  In  the  preceding  discussion  the  fact  is  brought  out  that 
judges  sometimes  have  strong  personal  preferences  and  that 
when  this  is  not  the  case  they  usually  agree.  That  the  Stand- 
ard of  Perfection  has  been  placed  as  a  guide  no  one  can  deny, 
yet  in  some  instances  the  overwhelming  influence  of  personal 
preference  may  guide  the  judge  away  from  the  Standard 
descriptions  into  the  line  of  description  preferred  by  him- 
self. Whenever  this  occurs,  there  is  dissatisfaction  among  the 
exhibitors. 


176  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

Mr.  Wright  makes  a  most  convincing  argument  in  favor  of 
comparison  judging  when  he  says:  "In  passing  from  one  to 
the  other,  the  eye  is  not  trustworthy."  Combs,  wattles,  ear 
lobes,  and  body  formation  should  be  compared,  two  or  more 
fowls  being  placed  side  by  side  and  considered  together  sec- 
tion by  section  imder  the  same  light  and  conditions.  The 
weakest  point  in  the  score-card  system  is  brought  to  the  sur- 
face when  fowls  are  removed  from  their  coops,  carried  to 
another  part  of  the  hall,  held  in  the  hands  and  examined,  and 
judgment  passed  upon  them  without  regard  to  the  value  of 
others  in  the  class. 

3.  From  the  beginning  of  judging  according  to  standard 
descriptions,  there  has  been  a  disposition  to  make  regulations 
that  will  enable  all  judges  to  act  alike  in  placing  awards.  This 
may  appear  well  theoretically,  but  it  would  be  most  imfor- 
tunate  to  have  it  occur.  If  all  saw  alike,  from  a  single  view- 
point, and  judges  could  not  look  beyond  the  absolute  letter- 
of  a  standard  description,  there  would  be  little  scope  for  com- 
petition. If  but  one  kind  of  Plymouth  Rock,  Wyandotte,  or 
Orpington  were  permitted  to  win;  if  no  diversity  of  opinion 
could  exist;  if  the  standard  description  were  so  rigid  that  only 
fowls  cast  in  the  mold  selected  could  win,  what  incentive 
would  there  be  for  improvement?  There  are  almost  as  many 
opinions  among  standard  makers  as  there  are  individuals 
engaged  in  compiling  a  standard.  If  the  standard  reqmre- 
ments  were  so  rigid  as  to  allow  the  exercise  by  judges  of  no 
discretion  whatever,  every  fancier,  if  he  wished  to  continue  as 
an  exhibitor,  would  be  forced  to  abandon  all  effort  to  create 
new  breeds,  new  varieties,  and  new  points  of  excellence.  For 
he  would  know  in  advance  that  no  superiority  in  his  poultry 
would  be  considered  unless  it  conformed  in  every  particular  to 
the  standard. 

It  would  be  most  fortunate,  however,  if  all  persons  could 
learn  to  apply  the  standard  equally  well.  If  all  persons  could 
understand  alike  the  meaning  of  type  in  each  breed  and  apply 
it  rigidly  to  all  fowls  considered,  there  would  be  more  rapid 
advancement  in  the  breeding  of  fine  poultry.     Sometimes  it 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  177 

is  the  case,  when  there  are  no  fowls  in  a  show  room  that 
approach  standard  requirements,  that  a  fowl  will  be  valued 
high  enough  to  permit  of  awarding  it  the  first  prize.  This  is 
an  unfortimate  practice,  for  the  reason  that  it  retards  improve- 
ments and  leads  to  dissatisfaction,  although  it  may  gratify  the 
pride  of  an  exhibitor  at  the  time.  Dissatisfaction  crops  out 
when  fowls  that  have  been  scored  above  their  true  value  are 
placed  in  competition  with  fowls  that  are  of  superior  value. 
It  is  difficult  to  make  an  exhibitor  understand  that  no  favorit- 
ism has  been  shown  in  scoring  a  fowl  lower  than  at  a  previous 
exhibition.  A  score  of  90  in  one  show  room  shoiild  indicate 
a  fowl  of  the  same  value  as  a  score  of  90  in  any  other  show  room. 
Whenever  a  higher  score  is  given  to  a  fowl  in  one  show  room 
than  in  another,  it  is  an  indication  that  the  standard  has  not 
been  properly  applied. 

4.  Failure  to  consider  type  or  breed  characters  above  all 
other  requirements  is  largely  responsible  for  the  lack  of  proper 
judging.  One  of  the  foremost  experts  in  judging  states  that 
if  it  were  not  for  a  few  minor  details,  it  would  not  be  possible 
to  distinguish  between  some  breeds  upon  any  other  basis 
than  the  shape  of  their  combs.  For  example,  the  White 
Plymouth  Rock  and  the  White  Wyandotte,  the  former  with  a 
single  comb  and  the  latter  with  a  rose  comb,  could  not  be  dis- 
tinguished, were  it  not  for  their  combs,  except  by  the  shape  of 
their  bodies.  These  two  types  are  frequently  bred  so  nearly 
ahke  that  they  could  not  be  separated  into  classes  in  the  show 
room  if  it  were  not  for  the  difference  of  comb.  Buff  Orpingtons 
that  woiild  pass  for  Buff  Plymouth  Rocks,  were  it  not  for  the 
color  of  shanks,  are  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception.  Judges 
are  frequently  compelled  to  examine  the  comb  or  the  shanks 
and  feet  to  be  sure  whether  a  fowl  is  a  Wyandotte,  a  Plymouth 
Rock,  or  an  Orpington. 

Such  conditions  as  these  should  not  and  could  not  exist  if 
the  judges  would  be  rigid  in  the  application  of  the  standard 
demands  for  type  and  breed  characters.  If  White  geese  that 
plainly  show  an  intermingling  of  Toulouse  blood  are  selected 
to  win  as  Embden  geese,  what  encouragement  is  there  for  the 


178  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

exhibitor  to  breed  the  White  geese  in  their  purity?  If  pref- 
erence is  given  to  Orpingtons  that  can  be  distinguished  from 
Plymouth  Rocks  only  by  the  color  of  their  shanks,  what 
incentive  will  there  be  to  breed  Plymouth  Rocks  of  proper 
form?  If  White  Wyandottes  can  be  distinguished  from  Plym- 
outh Rocks  only  by  the  difference  in  comb,  what  incentive  will 
there  be  to  keep  the  Plymouth  Rock  and  Wyandotte  type  of 
fowls  separate  and  distinct? 

The  rules  for  judging  should  be  so  rigid  that  lack  of  type  or 
breed  characters  will  disqualify  a  fowl  from  competition.  No 
fowl,  however  beautiful  in  plrmiage,  that  lacks  the  type  required 
for  the  breed  should  be  permitted  to  compete  in  a  class  of 
Wyandotte  fowls.  A  buff  fowl  of  Plymouth  Rock  type  should 
not  be  permitted  to  compete  in  the  Orpington  class  for  no 
better  reason  than  that  its  shanks  are  white  or  pinkish  white. 
There  are  no  three  breeds  more  distinct  in  breed  characters 
than  Plymouth  Rocks,  Wyandottes,  and  Orpingtons,  and,  not- 
withstanding this,  leniency  in  judging  may  be  blamed  for 
lack  of  sharpness  in  making  these  breed  distinctions.  In  an 
attempt  to  establish  standards  that  will  compel  judges  to  think 
alike,  the  first  effort  should  be  directed  toward  having  a  better 
understanding  of  breed  characters.  The  standard  should  be 
so  far  reaching  as  to  debar  from  competition  fowls  lacking 
the  form  required  for  the  breed.  No  judge  should  be  encour- 
aged in  his  calling  who  has  slighted  type  for  beautiful  plumage. 
No  judge  should  be  encouraged  who  has  not  proved  his  ability 
to  distinguish  form  even  more  readily  than  color,  and  no  one 
is  competent  to  place  awards  who  does  not  understand  the 
true  meaning  of  symmetry. 

5.  Symmetry  is  the  term  used  to  cover  type  and  type  only. 
From  the  application  of  symmetry,  the  gauge  of  a  judge's 
abiHty  can  be  taken,  for  whenever  this  is  so  overlooked  that 
color  has  the  preference  over  shape,  a  judge  has  shown  his 
inability  to  apply  the  standard  so  far  as  breed  characters  are 
concerned.  Type  over  color  should  be  the  most  rigid  law, 
and  this  can  be  rightfully  estimated  only  by  those  who  under- 
stand the  meaning  of  symmetry.     Symmetry  refers  to  the 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  179 

aggregation  of  all  parts  into  a  harmonious  whole,  and  it  can 
be  properly  considered  only  by  those  who  have  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  shape,  section  by  section,  and  who,  in  addition 
to  this,  can  estimate  the  sections  in  their  totality  as  consti- 
tuting perfect  form.  The  distinctive  type  of  each  breed  must 
be  so  thoroughly  understood  as  to  make  impossible  a  mis- 
understanding of  breed  characters. 


METHODS  OF  JUDGING 


GENERAL    REMARKS 

6.  In  America  there  are  three  methods  of  judging :  (1)  By 
the  official  score  card  of  the  American  Poultry  Association; 
(2)  by  the  decimal  score  card;  and  (3)  by  comparison. 

The  practice  of  judging  by  score  card  was  begun  and  has 
continued  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  ever  since  the 
compilation  of  the  first  Standard  by  the  American  Poultry 
Association.  A  few  shows  that  are  held  during  the  month  of 
November  and  a  large  number  that  are  held  between  Decem- 
ber and  April  practice  the  score-card  method  of  judging. 
The  shows  that  are  held  from  April  to  November  are  judged 
by  comparison.  The  score-card  method  of  judging  has  been 
recognized  by  the  American  Poultry  Association  since  its  origin. 

The  decimal  score  card  was  introduced  by  I.  K.  Felch  in 
1890,  and  since  that  time  both  the  official  and  the  decimal 
score  cards  have  been  used,  and,  naturally,  the  adherents  of 
each  strongly  favor  their  own.  Since  1890,  each  time  a  revision 
of  the  Standard  has  been  made  by  the  American  Poultry  Asso- 
ciation, a  motion  has  been  introduced  favoring  the  adoption 
of  the  decimal  system  either  in  place  of  the  system  established 
by  the  American  Poultry  Association  or  in  connection  with  it. 
The  adoption,  however,  has  not  been  made,  and  despite  the 
fact  that  the  decimal  score  card  has  not  met  with  the  approval 
of  the  American  Poultry  Association,  and  has  been  denied 
recognition  by  that  body,  its  use  continues  and  its  advocates 
are  increasing  in  number. 


180 


POULTRY  JUDGING 


§4 


Although  comparison  judging  has  been  used  for  so  long  in 
the  placing  of  awards,  in  fact,  much  longer  than  the  score-card 
method,  it  did  not  have  the  sanction  of  the  American  Poultiy 
Association  until  the  Standard  of  1904  was  authorized  at 
Rochester.  Judging  by  comparison  is  practiced  each  year  at 
aU  shows  held  prior  to  November  1  throughout  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  Nearly  all  the  larger  exhibitions  are 
judged  under  the  comparison  system. 


The .  advantages  of  each  method  of  judging  depend  on 
the  ability  of  the  judges  accurately  to  determine  how  nearly 
the  fowls  imder  consideration  approach  the  requirements  of  the 
standard.  The  use  of  the  score  card  is  considered  of  the 
greatest  advantage  to  the  amateiu",  who  gains  knowledge  by 
a  careful  study  of  his  own  fowls  in  comparing  them  with  the 
decisions  of  the  judge,  which  are  shown  in  detail  on  the  cards. 


§4 


POULTRY  JUDGING . 


181 


which  go  to  the  exhibitors.  Comparison  judging,  however, 
is  equally  beneficial,  provided  the  exhibitor  is  present  and  can 
understand  the  reasons  for  the  various  awards  and  rejections. 
Comparison  judging  becomes  of  more  general  use  in  neighbor-- 
hoods  where  poultry  shows 
have  been  held  annually  for 
a  considerable  length  of  time. 
Score-card  judging  is  in  more 
common  use  in  localities 
where  the  practice  of  holding, 
poultry  shows  is  in  its 
infancy.  More  shows  are 
judged  by  score  cards 
throughout  the  United  States 
and  Canada  than  are  judged 
by  comparison.  Comparison 
judging  is  really  an  advanced 
system  of  judging  that  can 
be  employed  by  those  who 
are  familiar  with  the  distinc- 
tions considered  of  the 
greatest  importance. 

Views  of  judges  at  work 
in  the  show  room  are  illustrated  in  Figs.  1  and  2.     In  Fig.  1  is 
shown  a  judge  examining  a  fowl  in  a  French  poultry  exhibition, 
and  in  Fig.  2  is  shown  a  judge  at  work  in  an  English  show. 


OFFICIAL-SCORE-CABD    METHOD 

7.  The  official-score-card  nietliod  is  a  method  of 
judging  by  the  official  score  card  of  the  American  Poultry 
Association.  A  copy  of  this  score  card  is  shown  in  Fig.  3. 
The  only  change  needed  to  make  this  score  card  local  is  to 
print  at  the  top  the  name  of  the  local  association  using  it. 
The  rest  of  the  card  is  correct  according  to  the  rules  of  the 
American  Poultry  Association. 

This  card  gives  a  list  of  the  parts  of  a  fowl  in  respect  to 
which  it  is  to  be  scored,  and  a  space  is  provided  marking  the 


OFFICIAL  SCORE  CARD  OF  THE 

Fancier's  Poultry  Association 

nATF                                               VARIFTY 

AnnRF<^<^                                     RANn  NO 

FNITRY  NO                                  WPir.HT 

Shape 

Color 

Remarks 

Rymmptry 

Wpiglit-  nr  SiV.p 

Pnnrlitinn 

■RpnrI  anri  Rpal^ 

Eyps 

rnmh 

Wattles  &  Ear  Lobes . 
l\[prt 

Wipg<; 

RarV- 

Tp,-1 

RrP3';h 

Pnrly~nnrl  TTInfF 

♦Hardness  of  Feather. 
fPfPc;*'-  anri  Rparrl 

T^tal  r'lif";                                  Srr 

rp 

♦Applies  to  Games  and  Game  Bantams 
tApplies  to  Crested  Breeds 

Jvrrptary 

182 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  183 

score  for  each  part.  A  definite  number  of  points  is  assigned 
to  each  part,  the  total  number  of  points  indicating  perfection 
in  all  parts  being  100.  The  figures  scored  after  each  part 
indicates  the  degree  to  which  it  approaches  perfection  accord- 
ing to  standard  requirements,  and  the  total  score  shows  how 
closely  a  fowl  approaches  perfection  in  all  respects,  which  is 
100  points.  This  method  is  a  mathematical  analysis  of  the 
defects  found  in  a  fowl,  and  enables  a  judge  to  make  a  discount 
for  each. 

The  score  card  was  designed  for  judging  poultry  at  exhibi- 
tions. The  object  was  not  only  to  decide  the  awards,  giving  the 
highest  scores  and  the  best  prizes  to  the  birds  least  defective, 
but  to  give  every  fowl  exhibited  a  rating  in  terms  of  the  standard 
requirements  and  in  comparison  with  competing  fowls  of  the 
same  sex  and  variety. 

This  system  can  be  used  also  by  fanciers  and  breeders  as  a 
guide  in  computing  values  in  sale  birds,  in  selecting  breeding 
fowls,  and  in  selecting  exhibition  fowls. 

8.  When  the  score  card  is  properly  used,  each  fowl  to  be 
scored  is  marked  with  a  numbered  leg  band,  is  correctly  weighed, 
and  carefully  inspected  in  each  section,  both  as  to  shape  and 
color,  when  these  are  divided  in  the  scale.  No  part  is  then 
neglected  or  overlooked,  neither  is  undue  allowance  given  one 
section  above  another.  While  different  judges  may  not  score 
all  fowls  alike,  those  who  strive  to  apply  the  standard  literally 
and  without  prejudice  will  score  the  best  fowls  the  highest 
and  the  poorest  the  lowest.  A  good  rule  to  follow  is  to  be  as 
lenient  as  possible  with  a  superior  fowl  and  severe  with  a 
decidedly  inferior  one. 

The  first  requisite  in  the  accurate  use  of  the  score  card  is  a 
working  knowledge  of  the  text  of  the  Standard  of  Perfection. 
No  matter  what  a  person  thinks  or  what  a  person  likes  in  any 
variety,  when  judging  he  must  give  the  Standard  specifications 
preference  and  be  guided  entirely  by  its  rules.  These  quali- 
fications govern  poultry  judging,  and  no  unwritten  law  can 
supplant  them.  To  learn  to  select  or  judge  any  variety,  the 
judge  should,  compare  the  different  classes  and  types  and 


184  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

become  familiar  with  the  Hst  of  technical  terms,  so  that  when 
reading  or  talking  about  any  section,  he  will  know  what  it  is 
and  where  to  look  for  it.  Frequent  practice  will  increase 
proficiency  in  these  matters. 

9.  A  fowl,  when  scored,  should  be  fully  matured  or  nearly 
so ;  it  ought  also  to  be  completely  recovered  from  its  annual  molt, 
but  not  so  long  after  as  to  be  faded  or  worn  in  plumage.  Every 
fowl  shoiild  be  in  perfect  health,  clean,  and  in  prime  condition. 
It  is  not  safe  to  anticipate  what  a  partly  grown  or  half -feathered 
fowl  will  score  a  month  or  two  hence.  A  correct  estimate 
cannot  be  given  until  the  hackle  is  full,  and  the  flights  (pri- 
maries and  secondaries)  are  in  and  the  tail  is  fully  developed. 
An  adult  fowl  will  score  highest  at  the  completion  of  its  annual 
molt,  but  hardly  ever  will  it  equal  the  record  it  might  have 
made  as  a  cockerel  or  pullet  at  the  time  when  it  first  came  into 
maturity.  A  cockerel  at  this  stage  has  a  comb  of  medivrai 
size  compared  with  his  body  parts,  his  tail  sickles  are  the 
proper  length  and  nicely  curved,  and  he  has  taken  on  an  attrac- 
tive style.  If  a  pullet,  she  looks  her  best  when  getting  ready  to 
deposit  her  first  egg,  and  it  often  pays  to  do  things  to  encourage 
her  to  postpone  this  event  until  after  she  has  made  her  appear- 
ance in  the  show  room. 

10.  A  disqualification  is  a  deformity  or  serious  defect  that 
renders  a  fowl  unworthy  of  being  scored.  A  deformity  may  be 
permanent,  hereditary,  or  the  residt  of  an  injury.  A  serious 
defect  in  shape  or  plimiage  denotes  the  presence  of  too  much 
foreign  blood.  Some  disqualifications  apply  to  all  breeds, 
others  to  a  large  part,  and  some  only  to  one  variety.  The  first 
are  general;  the  others  are  special.  Judges  may  overlook  a 
special  deformity  such  as  a  crooked  back  or  a  wry  tail  and  notice 
a  less  serious  general  defect  immediately.  If  a  fancier  will 
form  the  habit  of  running  his  hand  down  the  back  the  first 
thing  he  does  with  every  fowl  he  inspects,  he  may  save  the 
time,  trouble,  and  expense  of  scoring  a  worthless  show  fowl, 
or  perhaps  he  may  save  an  entry  fee  and  avoid  the  chagrin  and 
humiliation  of  having  his  mistakes  made  public.     Even  though 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  185 

the  Standard  advises  the  judge  to  give  a  fowl  the  benefit  of  a 
doubt  before  disqualifying  it,  amateurs  should  not  exhibit 
fowls  liable  to  be  disqualified. 

11.  When  estimating  the  cut  or  discount  due  to  a  defect, 
always  consider  the  valuation  of  the  section  in  points,  compare 
the  real  fowl  with  the  ideal  fowl  as  described  in  the  Standard, 
and  deduct  a  percentage  equal  to  the  defect.  The  following 
explanation  should  make  this  idea  plain.  Read  the  standard 
description  and  then  look  at  the  section  of  the  fowl  in  question 
and  see  whether  it  is  one-half,  two-thirds,  three-fourths,  seven- 
eighths,  or  fifteen-sixteenths  as  good  as  the  standard.  These 
degrees  of  merit  indicate  a  discoimt  of  50,  33|,  12^,  and  6|  per 
cent.,  respectively.  If  the  part  is  allotted  8  points  for  shape 
alone,  as  is  the  comb,  50  per  cent,  defective  would  require  a 
cut  of  4  points;  33^  per  cent.,  a  cut  of  2|  or  3  points,  because 
I  point  is  usually  the  numerical  fractional  cut;  25  per  cent., 
a  cut  of  2  points;  12|  per  cent.,  a  cut  of  1  point;  and  6|  per 
cent.,  a  cut  of  |  point.  A  section  not  considered  defective 
enough  to  receive  a  cut  of  ^  point,  yet  hardly  up  to  the  ideal, 
may  be  checked  and  the  fowl  having  it  rated  below  a  fowl 
scoring  the  same,  but  having  no  defects  in  the  corresponding 
section.  A  fowl  receiving  two  such  checks  would  fall  below 
another  fowl  of  equal  score  having  but  one.  This  method 
will  often  avoid  a  tie  and  place  the  exhibits  in  their  proper 
order  of  merit. 

A  fowl  so  defective  as  to  deserve  a  cut  of  3  points  in  any 
section  where  shape  and  color  are  divided  would  not  be  con- 
sidered a  possible  candidate  for  first  honors  imless  perfect  in 
other  sections.  It  is  those  fowls  that  are  nearly  perfect  in  all 
sections  that  will  score  90  points  each  or  better  and  be  entitled 
to  the  prizes.  The  Standard  rule  is  that  every  first  prize  winner 
must  score  at  least  90,  excepting  a  parti-colored  cock,  which 
may  win  a  first  prize  at  88,  and  his  second  prize  competitor 
must  have  a  score  in  proportion.  A  fowl  more  than  10  points 
defective  cannot  win  a  first  prize,  and  one  more  than  12  points 
defective  cannot  win  a  second  prize  if  the  show  is  held  under 
the  American  Poultry  Association  rules. 


186  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

12.  Symmetry  is  more  than  shape,  although  a  symmetrical 
fowl  is  invariably  of  good  form  and  carriage.  It  is  the  harmony 
of  the  different  sections  of  a  fowl  that  makes  or  spoils  its  sym- 
metry. If  the  comb  is  too  large  or  too  small  when  it  should  be 
medium  compared  with  the  size  of  the  fowl ;  if  the  neck  is  short 
or  long  when  it  should  be  of  medium  length;  if  the  back  is  out 
of  proportion,  or  the  body  is  narrow  when  it  should  be  wide, 
or  shallow  when  the  standard  requires  it  to  be  deep,  any  or  all 
of  these  will  call  for  a  cut  under  S3n.'nmetry  when  they  destroy 
the  proper  contour  of  the  fowl.  It  will  be  necessary  to  be 
careful  in  cutting  for  lack  of  symmetry  so  as  not  to  discount 
again  for  shape  in  the  same  section.  If  the  part  under  con- 
sideration is  out  of  proportion,  no  matter  whether  it  is  of  good 
shape  or  not,  it  affects  symmetry.'  If  it  is  out  of  shape  and  yet 
harmonizes  with  the  whole,  it  should  suffer  for  lack  of  shape 
rather  than  for  lack  of  symmetry, 

13.  Weight  is  determined  by  weighing  each  bird  separately 
and  discounting  for  any  lack  at  the  rate  of  2  points  per  pound, 
and  for  the  fraction  of  a  poimd  never  less  than  ^  point.  After 
the  first  of  December  each  year  until  the  end  of  that  show 
season,  Asiatic  fowls  are  disqualified  if  they  weigh  less  than  a 
certain  amount.  This  does  not  mean,  however,  that  they  can 
be  properly  scored  without  weighing  at  other  times  of  the  year. 
Typical  fowls  of  this  class  are  naturally  large  when  full  grown, 
and  immature  chicks  should  not  be  shown  under  the  score  card. 
With  bantams  and  those  breeds  prized  for  their  smallness,  the 
rules  for  weight  are  the  reverse  of  those  for  large  fowls,  although 
there  is  no  time  limit  when  certain  overweights  do  not  dis- 
qualify. 

14.  Size  is  effective  with  those  breeds  which  have  no  weight 
clause;  it  is  determined  by  the  eye  of  the  judge  or  the  appear- 
ance of  a  fowl.  If  immature,  it  should  not  be  discounted  so 
much  as  if  it  were  naturally  too  small  when  full  grown.  If  it 
is  overly  large  for  the  breed,  it  should  be  cut  more,  in  propor- 
tion, than  if  it  were  small  and  too  heavy.  Fat  should  not  be 
confoimded  with  size,  although  it  makes  weight.  Oversize 
in  the  small  breeds  injures  the  sprightly  appearance  of  the  fowls 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  187 

and  causes  a  confusion  of  classes  or  types.     This  fault  should 
be  discounted  as  severely  as  lack  of  weight  in  the  larger  breeds. 

15.  Poor  condition  is  seldom  seen  in  a  well-kept  show  fowl. 
When  the  comb  is  partly  frozen  with  the  frosted  parts  still  on, 
when  the  plumage  is  soiled,  mutilated,  or  broken,  the  eyes 
swollen,  the  nostrils  clogged,  the  shanks  dirty  or  scaly,  or  the 
fowl  diseased  in  any  way,  the  faulty  section  should  suffer  a  cut 
of  J  point  or  more,  even  to  the  full  value  allotted  in  the  scale 
for  perfection. 

16.  The  head  and  back  are  judged  both  as  to  shape  and 
color.  In  some  breeds  a  broad  head  with  a  projecting  crown 
is  called  for,  so  that  the  breadth  as  well  as  the  length  of  the 
craniimi  and  the  curve  of  the  beak  must  be  considered.  The 
color  includes  that  of  the  small  feathers  near  the  comb,  and 
the  complexion  of  the  face,  as  well  as  the  color  of  the  beak. 

The  numerical  value  assigned  to  the  comb  is  wholly  for  shape. 
If  the  color  were  other  than  standard,  the  fowl  would  be  out 
of  condition  and  not  fit  to  score.  The  comb  should  be  con- 
sidered and  analyzed;  the  base,  blade,  serrations,  points,  or 
spikes,  should  each  be  considered  separately  and  as  a  whole, 
and  cut  accordingly.  A  well-balanced  comb  is  one  of  the 
essentials  of  a  good  show  fowl. 

Wattles  and  ear  lobes  often  have  natiu^al  defects  in  shape, 
such  as  folds  and  wrinkles.  They  are  not  infrequently  muti- 
lated according  to  the  disposition  of  the  possessor.  The 
former  should  be  cut  more  severely  than  the  latter.  The  color 
on  this  section  is  more  important  than  the  shape,  presumably 
on  account  of  the  lobes  often  being  the  first  telltale  spot  to 
show  foreign  blood.  Care  shoiild  be  taken  to  discern  between 
defects  and  disqualifications  for  color  in  ear  lobes. 

17.  The  shape  of  the  neck  is  sometimes  injured  by  the 
presence  of  pinfeathers.  They  prevent  the  neck  from  being 
nicely  arched  and  the  section  is  cut  for  lack  of  shape.  The 
color  section  embraces  all  of  the  feathers  that  flow  over  the 
shoulders  from  the  head  down  to  the  tips  of  the  hackle. 


188  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

18.  The  wings  are  often  defective  in  shape  on  account  of 
broken  or  partly  grown  flights,  as  well  as  from  improper  fold- 
ing. The  wing  will  need  to  be  spread  for  intelligent  judging 
as  to  both  shape  and  color,  although  the  folding  should  be  noted 
before  taking  the  fowl  from  the  coop.  The  wing  bows  and 
primaries  are  often  most  defective,  but  it  is  right  to  accord  the 
wing  coverts  and  secondaries  an  equal  valuation,  and  to  dis- 
count accordingly. 

19.  The  shape  of  the  back  makes  or  spoils  the  good 
appearance  of  a  fowl,  and  the  ill-shaped,  humpbacked  fowl 
should  be  cut  severely.  The  plumage  on  the  back,  being  exposed 
to  the  sun  and  rain,  more  often  than  the  under  parts,  the  color 
of  this  part  is  usually  more  or  less  faded,  bronzed,  or  brassed. 
Where  the  valuation  is  liberal,  always  cut  in  proportion,  if 
necessary. 

20.  To  be  perfect  in  shape,  the  tail  must  be  complete  in 
main  tail  feathers,  sickles,  lesser  sickles,  and  coverts,  and  the 
main  feathers  must  be  carried  at  the  angle  specified.  Loss  of 
sickles  or  broken  feathers  mar  the  shape,  but  this  fault  should 
not  be  cut  so  severely  as  too  widespread,  pinched,  or  high 
tails.  The  main  tail,  as  well  as  the  sickles,  are  apt  to  be 
defective  in  color.  They  should  be  examined  the  entire 
length  before  making  a  cut  for  lack  of  color  or  markings. 

21.  Some  persons  make  a  mistake  in  judging  the  breast, 
through  including  the  front  part  of  the  body.  The  breast  is 
that  part  which  extends  from  the  throat  to  the  forward  point 
of  the  breastbone  (see  13,  Fig.  7),  and  should  be  so  considered 
when  estimating  its  shape  or  color. 

22.  Good-bodied  fowls  are  the  exception  rather  than  the 
rule.  Too  much  leniency  has  been  shown  by  judges  in  cutting 
for  defects  in  body  and  fluff.  The  body  shoiild  include  all  of 
the  keel,  the  fiiiff,  and  the  posterior  parts,  or  abdomen,  of  the 
fowl.  Parti-colored  fowls  are  seldom,  if  ever,  perfect  in  color 
in  these  sections. 

23.  Legs  and  toes  include  the  thighs  as  well  as  the  feet  and 
shanks.     To  be  perfect  in  shape,  they  must  set  well  apart  and 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  189 

be  perfectly  straight  and  upright  when  viewed  from  the  front, 
and  nearly  so  when  seen  from  the  side.  The  toes  must  be 
straight  and  of  medium  length. 

Color  embraces  that  of  the  plumage  on  the  thighs,  the 
shank  and  toe  feathering,  and  also  the  smooth,  bony  part 
covered  only  by  scales.  No  rule  can  be  given  as  to  how 
much  each  defect  should  be  cut,  such  as  dark  spots  on  the 
shank,  for  there  are  so  many  variations  in  both  size  and 
density 

24.  Hardness  of  feather  has  no  significance  with  any 
breeds  other  than  game  or  game  bantam  fowls.  Hard,  close 
feathering  is  characteristic  of  these  breeds,  and  any  approach 
to  flufifiness  would  render  a  game  unworthy  to  win  a  prize. 

25.  The  breeds  with  crests  or  with  both  crests  and  beards 
should  receive  special  attention  from  the  judge.  The  antler 
combs,  which  are  small,  as  well  as  the  crests  of  such  fowls 
should  be  regarded  as  of  peculiar  merit.  The  body  forma- 
tion of  crested  fowls  should  be  considered  separately,  and 
special  consideration  should  be  given  to  head  points,  which 
usually  receive  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  entire  count. 

In  passing  on  any  breed  whatever,  the  judge  will  need  to 
employ  a  close  observation  and  a  most  careful  reasoning; 
only  by  so  doing  will  experience  and  practice  bring  the  high 
proficiency  for  which  he  should  strive. 


DECIMAL-SCORE-CABD    METHOD 

26.  The  decimal -score -card  method  is  a  method  for 
calculating  by  tenths.  The  decimal  score  card,  which  is  shown 
in  Fig.  4,  provides  ten  divisions  for  the  features  in  respect  to 
which  a  fowl  is  to  be  scored,  and  the  perfect  score  for  each 
feature  is  10  points.  Provision  is  made  where  necessary  for 
scoring  features  separately  in  respect  to  shape  and  color.  The 
decimal  score  card  differs  materially  from  the  official  score 
card,  which  provides  for  scoring  more  features,  and  these  are 
valued  differently  for  different  breeds. 


THE  DECIMAL  SCORE  CARD 
Date 

Rrf^e 

r^ 

Sex                          Entry  N 
Coop  No.        Ring  No. 

0. 

o 

.1 

i 

G 
<^ 

j: 

1 
1 

CONDITION 
WEIGHT  or  SIZE 

Directions  For   Using  This  Card.— To   cut   for   weight,   comb,   head, 
legs,  check  (X)  the  features  defective  and   cut  in  the  column.     For  shape, 
make  cut  above  the  dotted  line.     For  color,  below  the  line.     Shape  being 
more  defective  than  color,  cut  in  space  for  shape,  but  low  enough  to  include 
the  dotted  lines.     Color   being    the   greater  evil,  commence  the  figure  just 
above  the  dotted  line  and  carry  deep  down  into  color  space.     This  secures 
despatch  in  use  for  exhibitions. 

COMB,  or  CREST 
AND  COMB 

HEAD  AND  i?^ 
ADJUNCTS    ^\^^8M 

NECK            l^Z' 

BACK             Sh^P; 

BREAST         Sh^P; 

BODY  and       Shape 
FLUFF            Color 

WINGS           l^Z 

TAiL              Sh^P; 

LEGS  and         Shape 

TOES             corr^ 

Total  Defects                              Score 

Jnripe 

President 

Stecretary 

§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  191 

27.  Advantages  of  the  Decimal  System. — The  argu- 
ments for  or  the  objections  against  the  decimal  system  that  have 
arisen  have  been  directed  to  the  fact  that  no  two  breeds  can  be 
valued  the  same.  Those  who  favor  the  decimal  system  claim 
that  a  perfect  back  in  a  Plymouth  Rock  is  of  equal  value  to 
the  back  of  a  Partridge  Cochin  or  a  Game  Bantam,  and  that 
neither  shoiild  have  the  advantage  over  the  other  in  the  general 
division  of  points ;  that  backs  for  Plymouth  Rocks,  Cochins,  or 

-Bantams  can  be  valued  at  10  points  as  weU  as  to  have  the  back 
of  each  fowl  estimated  at  a  different  percentage.  There  is 
evidence  of  value  in  the  decimal  method  of  calculation  from 
the  fact  that  the  monetary  system  of  several  countries  and  the 
metric  system  are  based  on  the  decimal  system.  When  matters 
of  such  vast  importance  can  be  conducted  best  imder  a  decimal 
system,  there  should  be  no  hesitation  in  conceding  that  the 
same  system  will  apply  equally  well  in  poultry  judging.  The 
adoption  of  the  official  score  card  of  the  American  Poultry 
Association  seems  to  have  been  more  a  matter  of  preference  of 
the  members  than  of  greater  convenience. 

28.  Application  of  tlie  Decimal  Score  Card. — In  the 

decimal  score  card,  35  points  are  apportioned  for  shape; 
35  points  for  color;  10  points  for  condition,  weight,  or  size; 
10  points  for  comb  or  crest  and  comb;  and  10  points  for  beak, 
eyes,  ear  lobes,  and  wattles.  When  judging  a  fowl  by  this 
system,  if  it  is  out  of  condition  or  under  sized  to  the  extent 
that  it  should  be  deprived  of  one-fifth  of  the  full  value  of  a 
section,  a  cut  of  2  points  must  be  made.  If  comb  or  crest,  or 
comb  and  crest  combined  are  deficient  to  the  extent  of  one-fifth 
they  are  cut  2  points;  if  one-tenth  deficient,  the  cut  is  1  point. 
If  the  head,  including  the  beak,  eyes,  ear  lobes,  and  wattles,  is 
defective  to  the  extent  of  one-tenth,  a  cut  of  1  point  is  made; 
if  one-fifth,  2  points;  if  two-fifths,  4  points.  In  judging  the 
neck,  if  its  shape  is  faulty  to  the  extent  of  one-tenth  of  its 
value,  it  must  be  cut  |  point;  if  it  is  lacking  in  color  to  the 
extent  of  one-fifth  of  its  whole  value,  it  must  be  cut  1  point 
for  color.  This  would  make  a  total  cut  of  1^  points  for  shape 
and  color  combined. 


192  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

In  judging  back,  breast,  body,  and  fluff,  all  of  these  should 
be  valued  separately  in  decimals,  deducting  one-tenth  or  one- 
fifth,  or  more  or  less  as  the  quality  of  these  parts  requires. 
In  each  of  them,  as  in  the  neck,  there  must  be  made  a  light  or  a 
hea\^  cut,  or  no  cut  at  all,  according  to  their  approach  to 
standard  requirements.  Both  shape  and  color  must  be  judged 
section  by  section,  both  separately  and  in  connection  with 
one  another.  The  shape  of  the  wings  should  be  considered 
in  the  same  maimer,  and  the  cut  thought  to  be  equitable 
should  be  made  for  shape.  Close  examination  must  be  given 
to  the  color  of  both  wings,  including  the  siuface  plimiage 
color,  imder-pltimage  color,  flights,  and  secondaries.  The  tail 
of  the  fowl  should  be  carefully  inspected  for  shape  and  for 
color,  and  must  be  discounted  in  the  same  manner,  dividing 
the  cut  for  shape  and  that  for  color  so  as  to  have  the  proper 
proportions  of  defect  recorded  for  each.  Legs  and  toes  shotdd 
be  judged  for  shape,  for  color,  and  for  toe  feathering  when 
present.  If  deficient  one-fifth  from  the  description  in  the 
Standard,  a  cut  of  2  points  must  be  made;  if  one-tenth,  a  cut 
of  1  point;  if  one-twentieth,  a  cut  of  ^  point.  In  the  same 
manner,  the  card  can  be  applied  to  every  breed  of  fowls  and 
its  subvarieties,  and  also  to  turkeys  and  water  fowls. 

29.  Comparison  of  the  Authorized  and  Decimal 
Score  Cards. — In  the  score  of  fowls,  and  hence  in  the  com- 
petition of  fowls  of  different  classes  for  the  honor  of  being  the 
best  fowl -in  a  show,  it  makes  a  slight  difference  whether  the 
authorized  score  card  or  whether  the  decimal  score  card  is 
used.  In  some  cases  the  results  would  be  different  in  judging 
fowls  of  different  classes  if  the  decimal  score  card  were  used 
instead  of  the  authorized  score  card.  These  differences  are  so 
sHght  and  they  are  apt  to  occur  so  seldom  as  to  remove  them 
from  serious  consideration. 

30.  As  before  stated,  there  are  ten  divisions  or  sections  in 
the  decimal  card,  which  is  used  in  the  same  way  for  all  breeds 
and  varieties  of  fowls.  In  the  authorized  card,  11  sections  are 
provided  for  geese,  12  sections  for  turkeys,  and  15  for  the 
American  and  Mediterranean  classes.     In  other  breeds  and 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  193 

varieties  a  less  or  equal  number  of  sections  are  provided.  To 
alter  aU  this  so  as  to  have  them  conform  one  with  the  other 
would  bring  about  so  remarkable  a  change  in  standard  con- 
struction as  to  cause  considerable  controversy,  which  should 
be  avoided. 

In  the  application  of  the  decimal  system,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  remember  that  there  are  ten  sections,  each  of  which  is  valued 
at  10  points,  and  that  in  seven  of  them  shape  and  color  are 
valued  at  5  points  each.  No  matter  what  the  discount  may 
be,  it  can  be  calculated  in  fifths  or  tenths  in  each  separate 
section,  and  when  the  discounts  have  been  made  in  this  way, 
equal  resiilts  will  come  from  the  application  of  the  decimal 
card  in  judging  every  breed  and  variety. 

When  the  authorized  score  card  is  used,  and  a  5-  or  a  10-per- 
cent, cut  is  made  for  color,  the  average  discount  does  not  seem 
as  fair  as  might  have  been  reached  by  the  application  of  the 
decimal  system.  On  the  other  hand,  every  cut  that  can  be 
made  by  comparison  or  by  the  authorized  system  can  be 
appHed  by  the  decimal  system,  and  neither  the  decimal  sys- 
tem nor  any  other  system  of  judging  is  properly  applied  unless 
the  same  care  in  application  is  given  to  the  one  that  will  be 
needed  in  properly  applying  the  others.  Every  point  that 
can  be  made  in  favor  of  any  one  system  can  be  made  for  the 
others,  but  to  accomplish  this,  the  person  applying  the  system 
must  have  a  thorough  understanding  of  the  system  and  of  the 
teachings  and  requirements  of  the  Standard,  and  a  familiarity 
with  the  breeds  themselves. 


COMPARISON    METHOD 

31.  The  coraparlson  metliod  of  judging  consists  in  a 
careful  examination  of  every  section  of  the  fowl,  and  a  deter- 
mination of  the  quality  by  this  means,  the  final  placing  of 
awards  being  decided  without  numerical  estimates.  In  fact, 
to  judge  by  comparison  is  to  select  the  best,  by  applying,  by 
means  of  sight  estimates,  the  criteria  of  perfection  established 
by  the  Standard. 

When  properly  applied,  comparison  judging  can  be  made 
more  equitable  in  placing  awards  than  any  other  system;  for 


194  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

selecting  the  best  fowls  in  the  classes,  no  system  is  superior 
to  it.  The  main  objection,  and,  in  fact,  the  only  real  objec- 
tion that  can  be  made  against  it  is  that  no  record  is  made, 
nor  is  there  any  reason  apparent  to  the  absent  exhibitor  for 
the  award  of  prizes.  A  record  by  scores  and  the  results  pub- 
lished conveys  a  numerical  value  for  individual  fowls  to  the 
mind  of  the  absentee.  In  the  score  card  he  has  comparative 
numerical  values  of  the  fowls  that  were  outside  the  list  of 
awards. 

32.  When  judging  by  comparison,  the  judges  must  make 
a  general  stirvey  of  the  entire  class.  Not  only  must  each 
individual  be  carefully  considered,  but  the  entire  class  must 
be  gone  over  and  the  best  selected.  Those  that  are  under- 
sized or  defective,  or  lacking  in  breed  characters  should  be 
eliminated  from  consideration.  The  remainder  should  be  con- 
sidered not  only  as  individuals,  but  in  comparison  with  one 
another,  for  the  safest  conclusions  will  always  be  reached  by 
careful  examination  of  each  fowl  separately  and  as  compared 
with  one  another.  Frequently  a  fowl  that  is  beautiful  when 
alone  will  shrink  in  quality  when  placed  in  comparison  with 
one  of  its  own  kind.  Herein  lies  the  value  of  comparison, 
because  the  results  are  reached  not  only  by  the  carefid  exami- 
nation of  each  fowl,  but  from  a  comparison  of  the  best  of  all 
so  examined  with  one  another. 

Every  detail  must  be  gone  over  just  as  minutely  in  com- 
parison as  in  score-card  judging.  Each  fowl  and  every  sec- 
tion of  each  fowl  must  be  as  carefully  considered  under  this 
as  under  other  methods.  Comparison  judging  has  not  been 
properly  done  when  a  few  glances  only  have  been  taken  at  a 
fowl.  Each  fowl  must  be  handled  as  carefully  imder  this  as 
tmder  other  systems.  Valuation,  section  by  section,  must  be 
made;  disqualifications,  disqualifying  weights,  and  proper  size 
must  be  sought  out  as  carefully  in  comparison  judging  as  in 
any  other  system.  The  fact  that  comparison  judging  so  safely 
selects  breed  characters  does  not  imply  that  color  has  been 
lost  sight  of  under  the  system.  Color  has  had  so  much  more 
attention  than  shape  under  score-card  judging  as  to.  warrant 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  195 

the  objection  that  variety  color  has  had  preference  over  breed 
characters.  When  comparison  judging  is  properly  done,  each 
section  must  be  carefully  scrutinized  both  for  shape  and  for 
color.  In  no  other  way  can  the  system  be  applied  as  it  should 
be,  and  in  accordance  with  the  directions  found  in  the  Standard 
for  comparison  judging. 

33.  A  notation  for  symmetry,  good  or  bad,  should  be  made 
on  the  award  list.  A  complete  tally  should  be  kept  of  the  value 
of  S3nmnetry.  When  the  points  for  symmetry  worthy  of  con- 
sideration have  been  sorted  out,  they  should  be  marked  one, 
two,  three,  etc.,  meaning  first,  second,  third,  or  lower  quality 
in  symmetry.  Such  marks  should  be  made  on  the  award  list 
opposite  each  fowl.  These  marks  mean  that  one  fowl  of  all 
the  lot  was  best  in  symmetry,  another  second,  third,  fotuth, 
or  up  to  any  number,  according  to  the  size  of  the  class.  Sym- 
metry having  been  decided,  another  record  must  be  made  of 
one,  two,  three,  etc.,  for  general  body  formation  and  a  like 
record  for  size,  shape,  and  general  condition.  Such  records 
should  be  made  until  the  fowls  have  been  gone  over,  section 
by  section,  for  size,  shape,  and  color. 

After  a  complete  record  of  this  kind  has  been  made,  fowls 
with  no  disqualifications  or  breeding  defects  should  be  placed 
side  by  side,  and  carefully  gone  over  by  comparing  each  one 
with  the  others  in  the  search  for  superior  quality. 

34.  In  the  application  of  this  system,  as  in  other  systems, 
every  detail  must  be  considered,  the  main  difference  being 
that  the  work  is  done  mentally,  a  comparative  valuation 
reached,  and  recorded  in  figures  on  the  side  of  the  lists.  This 
same  process  should  be  carried  to  a  conclusion,  but  not  until 
after  as  careful  consideration  has  been  given  mentally  to  each 
section  as  is  required  in  the  figures  on  the  score  card.  There 
is  but  one  fair  conclusion  that  can  be  reached  through  the 
application  of  comparison  judging,  and  that  conclusion  should 
be  that  the  best  fowl  in  every  class  has  been  placed  at  the 
head,  and  all  others  have  been  placed  in  their  exact  order  of 
merit — ^the  first,  second,  third,  fourth,  and  fifth  places  having 
gone  to  fowls  that  rank  in  quality  in  the  order  in  which  they 


196  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

are  named.  In  the  application  of  this  system,  a  fowl  not 
worthy  of  consideration  should  be  marked  0,  and  no  fowl 
should  be  awarded  first  place  that  will  not  score  90  per  cent. 
or  more. 

35.  In  the  consideration  of  breeding  pens,  first  the  females 
must  match  in  size,  shape,  and  color.  The  male  must  con- 
form to  them  in  masculine  proportions.  Shanks  that  do  not 
match  in  color,  heads  that  do  not  conform  one  with  another, 
and  irregular  or  unequal  body  formation  in  females  are  very 
detrimental  to  the  pen.  While  they  might  all  score  equally 
well,  they  do  not  match  in  the  pen,  and  they  are  not  of  equal 
merit,  and  imder  the  comparison  system  they  must  pay  the 
penalty  for  the  lack  of  general  symmetry.  A  pen  of  fowls  that 
do  not  harmonize,  that  do  not  all  conform  to  the  requirements 
of  size,  shape,  and  color,  should  not  win.  Comparison  judging 
also  gives  due  credit  to  superior  value  in  individual  fowls. 
No  other  system  gives  consideration  to  unusual  quality  as 
equitably  as  is  given  under  the  comparison  system.  One 
competent  to  judge  by  comparison  will  display  ability  to  select 
at  sight  fowls  of  great  merit,  even  though  they  may  be  wander- 
ing by  the  roadside,  ranging  through  the  fields,  or  confined 
in  the  exhibition  pen.  Thorough  competency  in  comparison 
judging  can  be  acquired  only  by  those  with  ability  to  select 
the  best  fowls  without  hesitation  wherever  they  may  see  them. 
The  same  ability  is  needed  for  the  proper  application  of  the 
score-card  system,  but  since  the  score  card  shows  numerical 
values,  it  may  be  applied  satisfactorily  even  by  those  not  able 
to  select  the  best  at  sight.  For  the  most  satisfactory  results, 
however,  a  thorough  imderstanding  of  all  systems  should  be 
acquired. 

36.  The  object  of  the  Standard  is  to  create  uniformity 
of  opinion,  adherence  to  type,  and  beautiftd  plumage  color. 
Such  requirements,  if  observed,  will  lead  to  the  development 
of  fowls  conforming  to  the  Standard  in  its  demands  for  size, 
shape,  and  color,  without  which  no  fowl  is  true  to  the  variety 
to  which  it  is  said  to  belong.  A  White  Wyandotte  or  a  White 
Plymouth  Rock  of  bad  form  should  scarcely  be  noticed  in  the 


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198  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

show  room;  in  fact,  it  should  be  sent  to  the  shambles.  The 
same  should  happen  to  any  fowl  not  of  true  breed  characters. 
New  varieties  are  created  through  a  desire  to  have  something 
more  beautiful  than  has  yet  been  produced.  This  desire  is 
commendable,  but  because  such  a  desire  is  paramount  in  the 
mind  of  poultry  breeders  is  not  sufficient  excuse  for  over- 
riding the  rules  of  the  Standard  and  awarding  prizes  to  fowls 
deficient  in  breed  characters.  Persons  in  the  advance  line  of 
poultry  breeding  should  exemplify  the  demands  of  the  Stand- 
ard in  every  fowl  exhibited  by  them,  and  every  judge  who 
passes  upon  a  class  should  feel  it  his  duty  to  apply  the  Standard 
perfectly.  Each  time  the  Standard  is  not  applied  according 
to  rule,  a  wrong  has  been  done.  Better  that  fowls  of  irregular 
form  should  be  shown  in  the  "any  other  variety  class"  than 
that  they  shotdd  receive  an  award  in  some  well-defined  class 
to  which  for  lack  of  form  they  should  not  be  admitted. 

A  form  of  card  that  may  be  used  in  comparison  judging  is 
shown  in  Fig.  5.  This  card  was  developed  and  made  use  of 
by  J.  H.  Drevenstedt  and  T.  F.  McGrew,  two  of  the  earliest 
adherents  of  comparison  judging  in  America.  Any  number 
of  lines  needed  to  complete  an  entry  may  be  added. 


DETAILS  OF  JUDGING 


GENERAL    REMARKS 

37.  The  standard  should  be  applied  equally  well  under 
all  systems.  Whether  the  awards  are  placed  by  a  committee 
or  by  an  individual,  should  not  change  the  results;  nor  should 
there  be  any  difference  in  the  results  obtained  whether  the 
system  used  is  the  score  card  or  comparison  judging.  The 
standard  is  the  law  and  its  meaning  should  be  as  rigidly 
enforced  in  the  use  of  one  system  as  another.  The  same 
resiilts  should  be  obtained  under  either  or  all,  and  those  who 
fail  in  applying  any  method  of  judging,  might  better  attribute 
such  failtire  to  either  incompetency  or  neglect  than  to  con- 
demn one  method  in  favor  of  another. 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  199 

Those  who  fail  to  consider  each  section  as  minutely  under 
the  method  of  comparison  as  they  do  under  the  score-card 
system  have  failed  to  comply  with  the  rules.  Those  versed 
in  the  application  of  the  standard  should  be  able  to  distinguish 
breed  characters  at  a  glance.  This  should  be  arrived  at  as 
completely  imder  the  comparison  system  as  with  the  score 
card.  Proper  plumage  color  can  be  selected  quite  as  well 
imder  one  system  as  under  another.  A  solution  of  this  was 
reached  by  Lewis  Wright  when  he  stated  that  to  do  the  work 
well  fowls  must  be  compared  side  by  side,  that  dtiring  the 
course  of  such  comparisons  each  section  must  be  considered 
or  compared  with  the  corresponding  section  in  each  fowl, 
and  that  the  final  accoimting  shoiild  be  made  in  the  summing 
up  of  quality  as  foimd  to  exist  in  all  sections,  preference  being 
given  only  to  such  things  as  are  most  difficult  to  produce. 
This,  of  coiu-se,  would  refer  to  type  of  the  highest  degree  and 
variety  color  in  perfection, 

38.  In  the  application  of  the  English  Standard,  fowls 
having  serious  defects  are  debarred  from  competition.  In 
England  the  score  card  is  not  apphed  as  is  practiced  in  America, 
but  the  English  judges  do  deduct  for  defects  up  to  a  certain 
limit;  for  instance,  20  points  or  more  may  be  deducted  for 
defects  in  plumage  and  condition,  and  as  many  as  25  points 
may  be  deducted  in  some  breeds  for  head  points  alone.  Where 
a  penalty  of  20  points  may  be  applied  for  bad  shape  and 
10  points  for  deficiency  in  size  there  is  little  chance  for  a 
fowl  of  poor  form  to  win  a  prize.  If  an  equal  penalty  were 
applied  in  all  localities,  a  speedy  improvement  of  size,  shape, 
and  color  would  be  brought  about.  It  is  admitted  that  the 
EngHsh  fanciers  improve  their  exhibition  fowls  more  quickly 
than  the  American  fanciers.  This  comes  from  the  fact  that 
lack  of  size,  shape,  or  color  in  every  section  is  so  severely 
penalized  by  them  that  fowls  lacking  standard  requirements 
are  declared  useless  for  any  purpose  other  than  table  use. 

39.  Judging  hy  Points. — Beginning  with  the  pubHsh- 
ing  of  the  original  American  Standard,  score-card  judging  was 
appHed,     This  method  prevailed  almost  exclusively  for  many 


200  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

years  in  winter  shows  held  throughout  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  But  one  score-card  system  was  in  vogue  up  to  1890, 
when  the  decimal  score  card  was  introduced.  Until  that  time 
the  official  score  card  of  the  American  Poultry  Association 
had  no  competitor.  Since  the  introduction  of  the  decimal 
system,  numerous  kinds  of  cards  have  been  used,  some  of 
which  include  partial  description  of  defects  and  others  of 
which  embody  a  condensed  description  of  imperfections  likely 
to  be  found.  No  system,  however,  has  rivaled  the  official 
score  card  of  the  American  Poultry  Association  except  the 
decimal  score  card,  which  has  been  more  or  less  used  in  some 
localities  since  its  introduction.  The  decimal  card  divides  by 
tenths  and  cuts  are  made  in  the  same  manner  or  by  units  or 
fractions  as  may  be  preferred.  There  can  be  no  reasonable 
objection  to  this  system  except  that  it  does  not  conform  to 
the  scale  of  points  of  both  the  English  and  American  Standards. 
Undoubtedly,  both  Standards  could  be  changed  so  as  to 
make  it  possible  to  judge  fowls  by  the  decimal  system,  but  so 
long  as  the  poultry  fanciers  of  both  countries  object  to  such 
a  change,  it  would  seem  to  be  better,  at  least  for  the  present, 
to  use  only  the  standard  score  card  in  the  placing  of  awards. 
The  use  of  more  than  one  score  card  in  the  same  country  is 
liable  to  lead  to  confusion. 

According  to  the  Standard,  judges  are  required  to  discount 
common  defects  according  to  rule.  This  rule  so  regulates 
cutting  for  defects  as  to  make  certain  discounts  absolute.  In 
the  application  of  this  rule,  the  lowest  fraction  permitted  is 
^  point,  and  the  highest  cut  is  3  points.  For  instance,  for  black 
feathers  or  feathers  in  any  section  of  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks, 
a  cut  of  I  to  1 1  points  is  made.  This  penalty  is  applied  to 
defects  that  can  be  quickly  removed;  while  purple  barring, 
which  cannot  be  removed  from  the  pltimage  of  a  fowl  is  penal- 
ized from  ^  to  2  points  in  each  section  where  it  appears.  Black 
feathers  are  as  natural  to  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  as  pur- 
ple barring  is  to  black-plimiaged  fowls.  The  more  beautiful 
the  sheen  of  black  plumage,  the  more  likely  purple  barring  is 
to  appear.  Thumb  marks  on  combs  are  breeding  defects 
the  same  as  side  sprigs  are;  the  former  is  penalized  at.  1  point; 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  201 

side  sprigs  disqualify.  The  thumb  marks  can  never  be  removed 
from  the  comb,  but  side  sprigs,  which  are  equally  objection- 
able, can  be  quickly  removed  without  leaving  trace  of  their 
existence.  In  cutting  for  defects,  black  or  white  in  several 
varieties  is  cut  from  h  point  to  the  limit  in  the  sections  where 
they  appear.  Although  the  English  Standard  is  applied 
entirely  by  comparison,  its  rules  of  application  are  even  more 
exacting  than  the  rules  of  cutting  for  defects  in  the  American 
Standard  of  Perfection. 

DISQUALIFYING    DEFECTS 

40.  Fowls  having  glaring  defects  shordd  be  disqualified, 
or  debarred  from  competition.  This  practice  is  more  gen- 
erally followed  in  England  than  in  America.  Disqualifica- 
tions are  applied  for  the  purpose  of  setting  aside  all  fowls 
possessing  defects  that  make  them  undesirable  to  use  for 
breeding.  At  times  too  much  consideration  is  given  to  mild 
defects  that  are  not  apt  to  descend  to  offspring.  All  defects 
that  lessen  the  breeding  quality  of  a  fowl  should  be  severely 
criticized.  Every  kind  of  defect  or  deformity  that  is  likely 
to  be  hereditary  should  be  considered  as  a  disqualification. 
Among  the  disqualifications  are  some  that  may  be  considered 
as  breeding  defects  that  cannot  be  removed.  Others  that 
might  be  breeding  defects  but  that  are  readily  removable 
should  be  considered  as  defects  rather  than  as  disqualifica- 
tions. So  long  as  removable  defects  are  disqualifications, 
they  will  be  removed  to  avoid  this  penalty.  Only  amateurs 
suffer  through  disqualification  for  removable  defects;  expert 
poultrymen  seldom,  if  ever,  show  fowls  with  removable 
defects. 

41.  In  addition  to  pronounced  deformities,  there  are  a 
number  of  minor  hereditary,  or  breeding,  defects  that  cannot 
be  removed  and  that  will  disqualify  fowls.  Among  these  are 
wry  tail,  squirrel  tail,  white  in  red  ear  lobes  or  red  in  white 
ear  lobes,  lopped  comb,  slipped  flights,  and  crooked  backs  or 
bone  deformities  of  any  kind.  Thumb  marks  in  combs  are 
even  more  serious  defects  than  lopped  combs  or  side  sprigs, 


202  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

and  although  they  cannot  be  removed  they  are  not  considered 
as  disquahfications. 

Among  the  disquahfying  defects  are  some  that  are  not 
hkely  to  descend  from  parent  to  offspring.  For  instance,  a 
fowl  with  white  plumage  may  be  disqualified  for  black  or  any 
foreign  color  in  its  plumage.  If  the  color  defect  is  removed, 
disqualification  becomes  impossible;  if  from  any  cause  this 
has  been  overlooked,  the  fowl  will  be  disqualified  when  shown. 
Such  color  defects  may  not  be  breeding  defects.  There  are, 
however,  hereditary  defects  that  can  be  removed  and  the  fowl 
changed  to  a  prize  winner.  The  most  glaring  of  such  defects 
are  side  sprigs,  stubs,  or  feathers  on  shanks  or  toes,  and  for- 
eign color  in  plumage;  all  of  these  can  be  removed  without 
detection,  and  when  removed  the  fowl  so  treated  may  win  a 
prize. 

42.  Removal  of  Defects,  or  Faking. — The  severe 
penalty  applied  to  removable  disqualifications  is  likely  to 
encourage  dishonesty,  or  faking,  as  it  is  often  called.  In  the 
preparation  of  fowls  for  exhibition,  the  most  honest  person 
may  be  led  into  error  by  a  desire  for  success  and  without 
intending  deception  may  remove  color  disqualifications  from 
the  plumage  of  fowls  that  are  being  prepared  for  the  show 
room.  Under  the  rules  of  the  Standard,  faking  is  considered 
most  despicable.  The  Standard  declares  that  not  only  the 
removal  but  also  the  attempt  to  remove  any  color  disquali- 
fications or  disqualifications  of  any  kind  to  be  faking  punish- 
able by  expiilsion  from  the  show  room  of  all  fowls  shown  by 
the  offender.  Yet,  several  removable  breeding  defects  are 
penalized  by  disqualification  and  to  remove  them  becomes  a 
temptation  hard  to  be  successfully  resisted. 

43.  Ways  of  Faking. — According  to  a  strict  interpreta- 
tion of  the  Standard,  the  removal  of  a  single  faulty  feather 
would  be  faking.  It  would  be  considered  as  bad  to  remove 
ten  or  a  dozen  mismarked  feathers  as  to  remove  a  hundred, 
yet  the  well-trained  fancier  would  say  that  it  would  be  suicidal 
to  permit  them  to  remain.     A  fancier  who  seldom  entered  a 


§4  POULTRY  JUDGING  203 

fowl  for  competition  was  very  strong  in  the  belief  that  it  was 
untidy  not  to  clean  up  the  plumage  of  fowls  and  keep  them 
in  the  most  presentable  condition.  Others  of  equal  prom- 
inence have  said  that  a  person  would  scarcely  attend  a  wedding 
or  a  function  of  like  character  without  being  well  groomed, 
nor  should  a  fowl  be  entered  at  an  exhibition  without  being 
equally  well  groomed  in  every  particular.  The  inclination  to 
pluck  all  mismarked  feathers  from  the  pliimage  of  a  fowl 
prior  to  exhibition  exists  with  every  fancier.  Lack  of  experi- 
ence is  about  the  only  excuse  that  is  ever  offered  for  not  having 
prepared  every  specimen  shown.  Objectionable  feathers  are 
seldom  breeding  defects.  The  most  difficult  problem  with 
reference  to  the  grooming  of  birds  is  to  decide  where  prepara- 
tion ceases  and  deception,  or  faking,  begins. 

Dark  markings  are  apt  to  show  in  the  back  plumage  of  fowls 
of  all  kinds  with  Light  Brahma  pliunage  color.  If  these  mis- 
marked  feathers  are  left  exposed  to  view,  the  fowl  may  be 
debarred  from  competition;  if  such  feathers  are  removed,  the 
fowl  may  win  the  highest  honors.  A  number  of  such  feathers 
cannot  be  removed  without  their  absence  being  noted.  When 
the  feathers  are  gone,  the  judge  must  decide  whether  there  is 
sufficient  evidence  that  they  have  been  removed.  The  state- 
ment in  the  Standard,  which  is  absolute,  decides  that  all  fowls 
that  have  been  faked  shaU  be  debarred  from  competition; 
but  so  few  decisions  of  this  kind  have  ever  been  made  as  vir- 
tually to  make  the  law  of  no  avail.  Situations  quite  as  dif- 
ficult present  themselves  with  reference  to  black  or  foreign 
color  in  any  part  of  the  plimiage  of  white-feathered  fowls. 

The  trimming  of  combs  is  against  the  rules  of  the  show 
room.  The  removal  of  a  side  sprig  will,  if  detected,  debar 
from  competition  every  fowl  the  owner  has  entered.  None 
but  the  unskilled  exhibitors  wiU  be  detected  in  this.  Trimmed 
combs  cannot  be  overlooked  so  easily,  for  wherever  the  knife 
or  lancet  has  been  applied,  marks  are  left  that  cannot  be  mis- 
taken. Spliced  feathers  in  wings  or  tails  can  be  quickly 
detected  if  the  eye  of  the  judge  is  keen,  yet  all  of  these  do 
occur  without  punishment  to  the  offender.  Shanks,  toes,  or 
feathers  dyed  or  bleached  are  of  frequent  occurrence.     When 


204  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

awkwardly  done,  this  is  readily  detected;  but  these  may  all 
be  accomplished  in  a  manner  that  will  baffle  detection  except 
by  the  most  careful  examination  by  the  judge.  The  use  of 
hot  irons,  cigars,  or  a  match  to  obliterate  white  or  gray  spots 
in  wing  feathers  may  be  so  practiced  as  to  be  difficult  of  detec- 
tion. Usually,  as  in  other  cases,  the  expert  performs  his  work 
so  well  as  to  baffle  detection,  but  the  amateur  or  novice  must 
suflFer  from  his  inexperience. 

44.  Prevention  of  Faking. — So  long  as  removable 
defects  are  penalized  as  disqualifications,  the  removing  of 
foul  feathers  and  similar  defects  will  be  practiced.  Less  of 
this  would  be  likely  to  occur  were  these  spots  of  foreign  color 
considered  only  as  minor  defects  and  discounted  as  such; 
but  so  long  as  foreign  color  in  any  part  of  the  plumage  dis- 
qualifies a  fowl,  the  practice  of  removing  such  feathers  is  likely 
to  continue.  Following  in  line  with  this  principle,  fewer 
rather  than  more  disqualifications  for  foreign  color  would  be 
needed  and  stronger  rules  should  be  enforced  against  the 
removal  of  defects  injurious  to  breeding  quality.  When 
changes  are  made  in  any  portion  of  body  or  plumage  that  will 
hide  or  remove  blemishes  due  to  breeding,  the  most  severe 
punishment  should  be  meted  out  to  the  offender.  No  excuse 
should  be  accepted  for  a  disfigured  or  improved  fowl.  Satis- 
factory evidence  of  changes  having  been  made  should  be 
accepted  as  proof  of  wrong  having  been  done,  and  no  mercy 
should  be  shown. 

45.  Detection  of  Faking. — As  before  stated,  whenever 
the  knife  has  been  used  on  combs  or  other  portions  of  the 
body,  the  scar  it  leaves  will  usually  permanently  brand  the 
fowl  so  treated.  For  instance,  the  removal  of  side  sprigs  may 
be  detected  by  the  scars  left  on  the  side  of  the  comb,  but  this 
may  be  so  well  done  as  to  baffle  detection,  as  the  usual  method 
is  to  pinch  them  out  with  the  finger  nails,  or  to  erase  the  scar 
by  rubbing  it  both  ways  with  sandpaper. 

Dyed  plimiage  is  not  readily  detected,  because  if  the  dying 
has  been  well  done  and  the  feathers  washed  and  scoured  into 
a  natural  appearance,  it  will  not  be  possible  to  detect  the 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  205 

presence  of  the  dye  by  the  eye  unless  a  magnifying  glass  is 
used,  and  even  this  may  not  be  satisfactory.  However,  if 
the  feathers  that  are  suspected  of  having  been  dyed  are  rubbed 
with  a  white  cloth  that  has  been  dampened  with  alcohol,  the 
presence  of  the  dye  is  likely  to  be  revealed.  In  cases  where 
it  is  strongly  suspected  that  the  feathers  have  been  dyed,  but 
where  the  detection  by  ordinary  means  is  diflficult,  the  decep- 
tion may  be  exposed  if  the  feathers  are  subjected  to  the  fol- 
lowing chemical  tests:  (1)  Pour  about  1  inch  or  more  of 
hydrochloric  acid  in  a  glass  test  tube.  Insert  the  full  length 
of  the  feather  in  the  tube,  and  shake  the  acid  about  the  feather. 
Feathers  dyed  buff  will  turn  a  blue  or  violet  color.  If  the 
colors  of  the  feather  arts  natural  they  will  remain  imchanged. 
(2)  The  detection  of  some  dyes  requires  the  feathers  dyed 
with  them  to  be  subjected  to  a  solution  made  up  of  equal  parts 
by  measure  of  a  satiurated  solution  of  crystals  of  protochloride 
of  tin  in  hydrochloric  acid  and  water.  This  solution  must  be 
absolutely  fresh  when  used.  To  make  this  preparation 
quickly,  a  few  of  the  crystals  may  be  dissolved  in  the  diluted 
acid  and  the  feathers  inserted.  If  this  does  not  bleach  out  the 
color  there  is  but  little  likelihood  that  the  feathers  have  been 
dyed. 

Artificially  colored  shanks  or  toes  may  be  detected  by  the 
application  of  a  white  cloth  moistened  with  alcohol,  or  with 
a  solution  made  up  of  1  teaspoonful  of  nitric  acid  to  4  ounces 
of  water. 

The  presence  of  spliced  feathers  can  be  detected  by  examin- 
ing all  wing  and  tail  feathers  close  down  to  the  juncture  of  the 
quill  with  the  skin.  When  splicing  has  been  done,  the  over- 
lapping of  the  quill  of  one  feather  on  another  will  show  the 
artifice. 

The  removal  of  white  or  gray  spots  from  feathers  by  burn- 
ing leaves  much  the  same  appearance  as  is  created  by  the 
ravage  of  the  depluming  mite;  the  edges  of  the  feathers  will 
be  rolled  or  ciirled  or  they  will  be  perforated  near  the  edges. 
A  feather  so  ruffled  may  be  restored  by  rubbing  it  smooth  with 
a  soft  brush;  thus,  it  may  be  difficult  to  detect  faking  of  this 
kind  if  practiced  by  a  skilled  fancier. 


206  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

The  removal  of  stubs  or  of  stiff  hock  feathers  from  the  shanks 
or  of  feathers  from  the  tail  will  leave  traces  that  will  be  visible 
to  the  naked  eye,  because  the  quills  of  such  feathers  are  large 
and  leave  good-sized  holes.  Sometimes  the  deception  may  be 
detected  by  the  presence  of  very  small  feathers  growing  in 
the  places  where  the  large  feathers  should  be.  A  magnifying 
glass  may  be  of  use  in  determining  whether  such  feathers  have 
been  plucked  or  not.  However,  if  such  pliacking  has  been 
skilfully  done,  detection  is  sometimes  difficult. 

The  removal  of  the  smaller  foiil,  or  mismarked,  feathers  from 
the  body  of  a  fowl  is  a  difficult  matter  to  detect  imless  so  many 
of  them  have  been  taken  out  as  to  leave  noticeable  bare  spots 
or  vacant  spaces  among  the  feathers. 

The  cushion,  tail,  and  hock  plumage  of  a  fowl  should  be 
examined  to  see  whether  or  not  fluffing  has  been  done.  Fluf- 
fing is  the  bending  and  breaking  of  the  quills  and  shafts  of  the 
feathers  in  these  parts  of  fowls,  especially  of  Asiatics  and 
Asiatic  Bantams,  for  the  purpose  of  building  them  out  into 
unnatural  size.  A  careful  inspection  of  the  quills  and  shafts 
of  the  feathers  will  show  whether  or  not  they  have  been  bent 
or  broken. 

46.  Inexcusable  Practices. — No  plausible  excuse  can 
be  offered  for  trimming  combs,  splicing  feathers,  fluffing,  or 
removing  tail  feathers  or  furnishings  and  stiff  plumage  in  the 
hocks  at  a  time  which  makes  it  impossible  to  grow  others 
prior  to  the  date  of  exhibition.  If  any  of  these  methods  of 
faking  have  been  practiced,  all  fowls  so  treated  should  be 
debarred  from  competition. 

No  breeding  defects  are  more  objectionable  than  stiff  hock 
feathering  and  foul  markings  in  tail  plumage.  Fluffing  for  the 
development  of  cushion  may  transform  a  fowl  with  tight  plu- 
mage into  one  having  full  cushion  fluff  with  a  well-spread  tail. 
Such  a  fowl  would  be  absolutely  useless  for  breeding  purposes, 
yet  it  may  make  a  fine  exhibition  fowl,  and  the  deception  may 
be  most  complete  and  discoverable  only  by  a  careful  examina- 
tion of  every  feather  in  the  cushion  and  about  the  tail,  from 
its  extreme  outer  point  to  its  juncture  with  the  skin. 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  207 


PROCEDURE  IN  JUDGING 

47.  The  rules  governing  the  placing  of  awards  on  poultry 
are  embodied  in  the  several  Standards.  In  America,  these 
rules  for  judging  are  applied  under  three  systems,  which  have 
been  described.  No  person  can  be  considered  competent  to 
apply  these  rules  under  any  of  the  systems  luiless  he  is  thor- 
oughly versed  in  the  details  of  the  Standard  descriptions. 
No  matter  which  method  may  be  made  use  of,  it  will  be  an 
impossibility  for  any  one  to  reckon  the  discounts  in  all  or  in 
any  one  of  the  separate  sections  imless  he  is  familiar  with  the 
requirements  for  perfection  in  those  sections.  He  must  also 
be  capable  of  making  reasonable  discounts  for  deficiencies  and 
to  state  plainly  why  a  deduction  has  been  made ;  to  be  in  a  posi- 
tion to  do  this  satisfactorily  he  must,  likewise,  have  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  instructions  to  judges  in  applying  the  com- 
parison system  and  in  cutting  for  defects  in  the  score-card 
systems.  These  matters  are  recorded  in  the  first  few  pages  of 
the  American  Standard  of  Perfection. 

48.  Examination  for  Type. — In  judging  fowls  where  the 
standard  is  applied,  each  fowl  should  be  considered  first  for 
type  or  breed  formation.  This  is  given  on  the  score  card  as 
symmetry.  Before  a  fowl  has  been  picked  up  or  disturbed 
in  any  way  its  value  as  to  perfect  or  imperfect  type  should  be 
noted  and  a  deduction  made  accordingly.  In  Fig.  6  is  shown 
a  Black  Orpington  posing  in  a  manner  calculated  to  show  ofE 
its  form  to  best  advantage.  In  the  show  room,  however,  it 
is  usually  the  case  that  the  form  must  be  judged  while  the  fowl 
is  in  its  coop. 

In  making  a  deduction  for  type,  if  symmetry  is  valued  at 
4  points  and  if  the  fowl  under  consideration  is  nearly  perfect 
but  is  slightly  off  in  breed  formation,  a  cut  of  |  point  shoiild 
be  made;  if  it  lacks  more  than  this,  a  cut  of  1  point  should  be 
made;  but  if  it  is  very  bad  in  breed  formation,  a  cut  of  2  points 
or  more  should  be  made.  It  will  not  matter  whether  the  appli- 
cation is  made  under  the  score-card  system  or  by  the  comparison 
system,  the  same  defect  should  count  against  a  fowl  equally 


208 


POULTRY  JUDGING 


§4 


in  both.  From  this  it  is  evident  that  to  apply  the  standard 
properly,  a  person  must  become  familiar  with  the  true  type  of 
the  breed  under  consideration.  It  is  as  necessary  for  a  game 
fowl  to  have  the  long,  slender  neck  belonging  to  its  breed  as  it 
is  for  an  Asiatic  or  a  Wyandotte  to  have  the  short,  bulky  neck 

belonging  to  its  breed. 
Conformation,  which 
means  the  formation, 
general  structure,  or 
arrangement  of  parts, 
is  a  term  that  must  be 
well  understood  before 
the  true  meaning  of 
symmetry  will  be 
grasped.  To  be  pro- 
ficient in  the  use  of 
the  Standard  requires 
a  thorough  under- 
standing of  the  proper 
formation  for  every 
breed  to  which  it  is 
applied,  and  no  per- 
son should  attempt  to 
go  beyond  his  knowl- 
edge in  the  placing  of 
awards. 

49.     Examina- 
tion for  Weight  and 

Fig.  6  ^ 

Disqualifications . 

Under  the  Standard  description  for  American  breeds  and  in 
fact  for  all  breeds  where  weights  are  included,  disqualifying 
weights  and  disqualifications  should  be  considered  directly 
after  a  careful  siu-vey  has  been  made  for  shape.  No  one 
should  ever  slight  these  two  demands.  A  disqualified  fowl 
should  never  be  considered  fit  for  an  award.  A  fowl  under 
weight  should  be  discounted  for  its  fault;  a  fowl  disqualified 
for  weight  should  never  be  permitted  to  win  a  prize.    The  usual 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  209 

method  of  procedure,  however,  is  first  to  consider  symmetry, 
then  condition.  Following  this,  a  deduction  is  made  for  shape. 
After  the  fowls  have  been  gone  over  for  symmetry,  condition, 
and  shape  in  each  section,  including  combs  and  other  head 
points,  a  thorough  examination  should  be  made  for  disquali- 
fications, and  then  each  section  shordd  be  examined  for  color. 
Whether  the  score  card  or  the  comparison  system  is  applied, 
equal  care  should  be  given  to  each  section  for  shape  and  for 
color,  the  same  as  when  the  score  card  is  applied. 

50.  Exaraination  for  Head  Points. — Head  points 
include  shape  and  color  of  head,  comb,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes, 
and  these  should  have  more  than  passing  influence  over  the 
final  decision.  A  fowl  that  stands  well,  has  beautiful  head 
points,  including  comb  and  eyes,  and  that  stays  to  the  front  of 
the  coop,  meeting  the  approach  of  the  judge  without  attack  or 
resistance,  has  many  points  in  its  favor.  Among  the  expres- 
sions relative  to  quality  that  will  be  heard  in  a  day  from  those 
in  attendance  at  a  poultry  exhibition,  more  than  half  of  them 
will  be  made  with  reference  to  the  beauty  or  defects  of  head  and 
comb.  Combs  are  highly  valued  in  the  scale  of  points,  and  the 
head  and  its  belongings  are  one-fifth  or  more  of  the  entire  scale. 

If  beautiful  in  form  and  color  and  well  set  on  the  head,  combs 
are  discoimted  but  little.  On  the  other  hand,  they  must  be 
discounted  for  the  slightest  defect  and  severely  cut  for  greater 
defects.  Since  imperfections  of  comb  readily  descend  to  off- 
spring, they  are  for  this  reason  heavily  discounted;  on  the 
other  hand,  beautiful  heads  and  combs,  because  they  con- 
tribute greatly  to  beauty,  are  rated  highly  by  judges.  All 
defects  that  have  a  detrimental  influence  over  futm"e  offspring 
shoiild  be  more  severely  cut  than  minor  defects  that  are  not 
apt  to  descend  to  offspring.  As  an  example,  a  rough  twisted 
comb  should  be  discounted  one-half  or  more  of  its  entire 
valuation.  A  comb  of  proper  size  and  shape  that  lops  slightly, 
perhaps  as  a  result  of  poor  condition,  is  not  apt  to  be  a  breed- 
ing defect,  and  may  be  passed  with  a  cut  of  |  point.  A  comb 
that  I9PS  on  account  of  too  great  size  or  deformity  should  be 
cut  at  least  one-half  or  more  of  its  total  value.     This  will  serve 


210  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

to  penalize  not  only  Standard  but  breeding  defects  as  well. 
All  cuts  should  be  made  in  conformity  to  the  rules  in  the 
Standard  to  guide  in  cutting  for  defects;  but,  in  addition  to 
this,  discounts  should  be  made  for  well-known  breeding 
defects. 

Wattles  and  ear  lobes  need  not  be  so  severely  taxed  for 
defects  as  combs,  except  for  white  in  ear  lobes  that  should  be 
red,  and  red  in  ear  lobes  that  should  be  white.  Red  in  ear 
lobes  of  the  Mediterranean  varieties  and  white  in  the  face  are 
breeding  defects  that  should  be  severely  penalized.  Injiu-ies 
are  apt  to  occur  to  wattles  that  hang  down  and  are  continually 
coming  in  contact  with  rough  places.  For  this  reason,  but 
slight  cuts  if  any  are  ever  made  in  wattles  not  injured  by  foreign 
color.  The  eyes  should  be  scrutinized  for  shape  and  color. 
Those  not  correct  in  color  according  to  Standard  demands  should 
be  discounted  in  proportion  to  their  defect.  Pearl  eyes  where 
red  eyes  should  be,  or  one  that  is  off  colored  should  merit  a 
cut  of  1  point;  if  both  eyes  are  off  colored  they  should  be  cut 
even  more  than  is  demanded  by  the  Standard.  Pearl  eyes  in 
the  parent  stock  descend  readily  to  the  offspring.  Eyes  that 
are  brilliant  and  bright  red  indicate  vigor;  eyes  that  are  pale 
instead  of  red  as  demanded,  indicate  lack  of  vitality. 

51.     Exaraination  of  Neck,  Back,  Saddle,  and  Tail. 

The  neck,  back,  and  saddle  may  be  considered  both  separately 
and  in  conjunction  with  one  another.  The  neck  might  con- 
form to  the  shape  demands  of  the  Standard,  yet,  in  connection 
with  the  back  and  saddle,  it  might  not  appear  to  be  so  nearly 
perfect;  for  this  reason  the  three  may  be  considered  separately 
or  as  a  whole,  and  the  general  deduction  from  aU  three  be 
apportioned  to  each  section  according  to  its  ratio  value.  A 
cut  of  I  point  may  be  needed  for  the  neck,  2  for  the  back, 
and  1^  for  the  saddle;  or  the  neck  might  be  passed  as  perfect 
in  shape  and  2|  points  placed  against  the  back;  or  the  back 
might  be  left  with  a  cut  of  2  points  and  |  point  be  added  to  the 
saddle.  When  the  score  card  is  applied,  separate  cuts  must 
be  made;  under  comparison,  a  competent  judge  would  survey 
the  three  sections  and  make  his  total  deduction  at  a  glance. 


§4  POULTRY  JUDGING  211 

The  tail  slioiild  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  back 
and  saddle.  The  tail  formation  may  be  perfect  in  itself,  but 
in  union  with  back  and  saddle,  it  may  be  of  bad  proportions. 
Symmetry  may  be  well  illustrated  as  follows:  It  may  be 
possible  for  a  neck,  a  back,  a  saddle,  or  a  tail  to  approach 
perfection  as  individual  parts,  but  when  all  are  united  the  union 
may  not  be  pleasing,  and  symmetry  may  be  destroyed.  The 
main  tail  feathers,  the  sickles,  and  the  coverts  should  be  care- 
fully considered,  so  that  a  decision  may  be  reached  as  to  whether 
the  formation  is  natural  or  the  result  of  manipulation. 

52.  Examination  of  Wings. — Wings  naturally  belong 
to  the  back,  and  should  be  considered  both  singly  and  con- 
jointly with  the  back.  The  wings  should  be  well  placed;  they 
should  be  full  and  oval  in  formation  from  the  junctiire  of  the 
wing  with  the  back  down  to  where  it  is  hidden  in  the  breast  and 
body  plimiage.  Wings  should  never  be  fiat,  but  should  be  filled 
out  beneath,  with  the  muscles  located  about  the  junction  of 
the  wing  with  the  body  of  the  fowl.  This  swells  out  and  makes 
oval  the  wing  formation.  Where  these  muscles  are  lacking 
in  fulness,  the  wings  are  apt  to  fit  close  and  give  a  flat  appear- 
ance to  the  side  of  the  fowl.  Wings  should  be  well  folded;  the 
flights  and  secondaries  should  be  carried  well  up  in  a  manner 
that  forms  the  perfect  wing  bay.  Slipped  flights  or  wings  that 
hang  down  are  breeding  defects,  and  should  be  severely  penal- 
ized in  varieties  that  have  tight  plumage,  and  less  severely 
dealt  with  in  fowls  that  have  fluffy  plumage.  A  slipped  wing 
in  a  Plymouth  Rock  female  would  be  bad,  but  a  slight  defect 
of  this  kind  might  be  overlooked  in  an  Asiatic.  The  shape 
of  the  wing  includes  the  entire  wing,  the  flights,  and  the  second- 
aries, as  well  as  the  whole  wing  formation.  The  carriage  and 
shape  must  be  considered  under  the  section  alloted  for  the  shape 
of  wings.  The  wings  must  be  examined  for  color  both  before 
and  after  they  are  opened.  Each  feather  of  the  flights  and 
the  secondaries  must  be  carefully  inspected  and  the  small 
pinions  and  under  filling  as  well. 

53.  Examination  of  Breast  and  Body. — A  perfect  breast 
and  body  formation  has  the  advantage  of  beauty  for  exhibition 


212  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

and  value  for  table  use.  A  fowl  having  a  long,  deep  breast, 
with  great  breadth  in  front  and  rounding  away  in  all  directions 
from  the  point  of  the  breast,  is  apt  to  be  beautiful  in  formation 
and  valuable  for  utility  purposes.  Fowls  that  have  broad, 
full  backs,  with  deep  breasts  of  great  length,  being  besides  well 
built  out  between  the  thighs,  have  much  greater  value  for 
exhibition  than  fowls  deficient  in  these  parts.  Severe  cuts 
should  always  be  made  for  deficiency  in  breast  and  body 
formation.  A  breast  that  is  narrow  between  the  thighs  will 
so  confine  the  internal  organs  as  to  injiire  the  health  of  the 
fowl.  Such  fowls  will  fail  in  vitality  and  dwindle  away.  For 
this  reason  a  defect  of  this  kind  in  breast  or  body  should  be 
punished  severely  in  the  scale  of  points.  Equal  severity  should 
be  dealt  out  to  an  exhibition  fowl  so  fat  in  the  abdomen  as  to 
exaggerate  body  formation.  Standard  description  of  breast 
and  body  in  all  varieties  favors  beautiful  formation,  with 
attractive  ctuves  from  the  breast  in  front  down  under  and 
between  the  thighs,  rounding  up  the  abdomen  into  beau tif ill 
form,  but  not  extending  it.  For  an  excess  of  fat  in  the  abdomen, 
a  fowl  should  be  discounted  at  least  one-half  of  the  value  of 
that  section. 

54,     Examination    of    Thighs,     Shanks,    and    Toes. 

The  Standard  mentions  the  legs  and  toes.  The  legs  and  toes, 
as  imderstood  by  poultrymen,  include  the  first  joint,  or  drum- 
stick, the  shank,  and  the  toes.  The  second  joint,  which  is 
really  the  thigh  and  the  drumstick,  is  the  upper  portion  of  the 
leg,  but  to  meet  the  description  of  the  Standard,  the  drumstick 
may  be  considered  as  the  upper  part  of  the  leg  and  the  shank 
as  the  lower  part.  One  of  the  most  important  feattires  of  leg 
formation  is  proper  width  between  the  thighs,  in  accordance 
with  the  character  of  the  fowl.  Asiatic  fowls  should  be  wide 
between  the  thighs;  fowls  of  the  American  and  English  breeds, 
not  so  wide  as  the  Asiatics,  but  wide  in  comparison  to  the 
-size  of  the  fowl;  fowls  of  the  Mediterranean  and  other  smaller 
varieties  should  be  of  a  width  that  will  permit  of  breast  and 
body  formation  conforming  to  the  width  of  the  back  and  will 
leave    room    for    internal    organs.     Narrowness    between    the 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  213 

thighs  and  narrow,  short,  or  thin  breast  and  body  formation 
are  among  the  worst  defects  that  a  fowl  can  have.  Narrowness 
between  the  thighs  is  an  indication  of  faihng  vitahty,  and  for 
this  defect  severe  cuts  should  be  made. 

55.  Examination  of  Color. — In  the  consideration  of 
color,  the  scale  of  discounts  must  be  carefully  applied  to  every 
section  and,  although  shape  is  of  greater  import,  color  is  the 
source  of  beauty.  Whenever  perfect  color  is  lacking,  a  cut 
must  be  made  for  this  defect  in  each  section.  Where  a  deduc- 
tion of  J  point  is  made  for  color  in  each  section  in  the  case  of 
color  apportionment  for  American  breeds,  it  would  amount  to 
a  total  discount  of  2f  points.  If  ^  point  is  indicated  for 
defective  color  in  each  section,  the  cut  for  color  should  be 
double  this  amount.  In  some  cases  a  cut  of  from  |  to  1|  or 
2  points  will  be  needed  for  color  defects  in  separate  sections. 
For  instance,  a  cut  of  |  point  for  buff  color  might  be  necessary 
in  the  neck  of  the  female,  while  a  cut  of  2J  points  would  be 
needed  for  bad  color  in  back  or  body  plumage.  Wings  may  be 
discounted  for  black  or  for  white  up  to  half  or  more  of  the 
entire  color  value  of  the  sections.  Discounts  for  color  should 
always  be  considered  in  connection  with  the  age  of  the  fowl. 
Pullets  in  the  best  show  condition  should  be  more  severely 
penalized  for  color  defects  than  hens  2  or  3  years  old  of  the 
same  variety.  Color  should  always  have  careful  consideration 
and  be  discoimted  according  to  the  relative  value  in  the  general 
make-up  of  fowls,  but  it  should  never  be  more  severely  pen- 
alized than  shape.  A  thorough  examination  for  color  defects 
should  always  be  made  according  to  the  demands  of  the 
Standard. 

56.  Examination  of  Condition. — To  be  in  good  con- 
dition, a  fowl  must  be  absolutely  clean  throughout.  Scaly 
legs  deserve  to  be  cut  not  only  for  shape  but  for  condition 
as  well.  A  broken  or  crooked  toe  should  be  cut  both  for  shape 
and  for  condition ;  dirt  between  the  scales  of  the  shanks  or  toes, 
or  dirt  in  any  parb  of  the  pltimage,  head,  or  head  points  is  con- 
sidered as  an  indication  of  under  condition,  and  such  defects 
should  be  severely  cut  as  a  rebuke  to  the  exhibitor  for  lack  of 


214  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

preparation  and  as  a  discount  against  a  fowl  that  has  not  been 
prepared  properly  for  the  show  room.  Perfect  symmetry,  head 
points,  and  condition  are  apt  to  win  the  laurels  for  the  fowls 
that  possess  them.  If  either  or  all  of  these  are  lacking,  the  fowl 
usually  cannot  win.  No  fowl  that  is  so  lacking  in  condition 
as  to  appear  imclean  or  unkempt  should  be  permitted  to  win 
a  prize  in  a  show  room.  Well-groomed  poiiltry  is  the  kind  that 
should  win  prizes  in  keen  competition. 


REQUIREMENTS   FOR  ADMISSION   OF 
NEW  BREEDS   TO   THE   STANDARD 

57.  When  new  breeds  have  been  made  and  it  is  desired  to 
have  them  admitted  to  the  American  Standard  of  Perfection, 
application  must  be  made  to  the  American  Poultry  Association 
and  convincing  evidence  must  be  presented  to  prove  that  the 
new  variety  has  acquired  breed  characters  siifhciently  strong 
to  produce  50  per  cent,  of  their  offspring  pure  to  type  and 
character.  In  other  words,  before  the  American  Poultry 
Association  will  accept,  or  admit,  a  new  variety  as  standard 
bred,  the  fowls  of  the  variety  must  have  the  shape  or  form  of 
the  breed  to  which  they  belong  and  the  variety  color  so  well 
estabhshed  in  them  as  to  produce  offspring  50  per  cent,  of  which 
would  be  recognized  as  pure  in  character  and  form  to  the  variety. 

In  addition  to  this,  at  least  one  pair  of  old  and  one  pair  of 
young  fowls  of  the  variety  must  be  shown  three  consecutive 
years  at  some  one  of  the  poultry  shows  held  under  the  auspices 
of  the  American  Poultry  Association.  Their  presence  at  each 
one  of  these  shows  and  the  quality  of  the  specimens  shown 
must  be  vouched  for  by  the  judge  who  passed  upon  them  and 
the  secretary  of  the  show  at  which  they  were  exhibited.  The 
final  application  for  their  admission  to  the  Standard  must  be 
sent  to  the  Secretary  of  the  American  Poultry  Association 
more  than  60  days  prior  to  the  annual  meeting,  and  this  petition 
must  contain  evidence  in  writing  of  the  quality  of  the  fowls  and 
places  they  have  been  shown,  and  the  standard  description 
of  them.     This  application  must  be  received  early  enough  for 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  215 

the  secretary  to  give  notice  to  the  membership  of  the  associa- 
tion of  the  application  60  days  in  advance  of  the  annual  meeting. 
Each  and  every  one  of  these  requirements  must  be  fully  com- 
plied with  or  the  application  will  be  rejected.  All  who  antici- 
pate making  application  for  the  admission  of  a  new  breed  should 
get  from  the  secretary  of  the  American  Poultry  Association  a 
copy  of  the  full  requirements  for  the  admission  of  new  breeds 
and  follow  it  out  to  the  letter. 


GLOSSARY  OF  TECHNICAL  TERMS  USED 
BY  POULTRYMEN 

58,  The  terms  and  expressions  peculiar  to  some  certain 
industry  or  calling  are  often  not  readily  understood  by  the 
novice.  For  this  reason,  it  is  sometimes  the  ight  advisable 
to  add  a  chapter  explaining  the  terms  used,  instead  of  defining 
them  in  the  text.  A  treatment  of  the  subject  of  poultry  breed- 
ing would  not  be  complete  without  an  explanation  of  its  tech- 
nical terms.  Without  a  clear  imderstanding  of  the  meaning 
of  the  terms  used  no  one  could  judge  fowls  according  to  Stand- 
ard requirements  or  select  them  for  breeding  purposes  or  the 
show  pen  or  even  converse  intelligently  on  the  subject  of  poultry. 

In  order  to  impart  a  clear  understanding  of  the  terms  applied 
to  the  different  parts  of  a  fowl,  a  profile  view  of  one  is  shown 
in  Fig.  7,  with  the  different  parts  numbered.  Following  this 
will  be  foimd  a  list  of  the  names  of  the  numbered  parts. 
Farther  on  is  a  list  of  technical  terms  and  expressions  used  by 
poultrymen,  some  of  which  have  been  explained  in  the  text. 
This  list  will  be  found  useful  for  purposes  of  reference.  Some 
of  the  terms  are  peculiar  to  England  and  some  to  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  United  States,  but  the  meaning  of  each  is 
fully  explained  and  many  are  made  clear  by  illustrations. 

Abdomen. — The  part  of  the  body  of  a  fowl  that  contains 
the  viscera.     See  32,  Fig.  7. 

Albino. — A  fowl  that  is  pure  white  in  all  parts  except  the 
eyes,  due  to  the  absence  of  coloring  pigment;  a  sport  from 
black  or  colored  fowls. 


216 


POULTRY  JUDGING 


§4 


Names  of  Numbered  Parts 


1,  Crest 

74,  Breastbone,  or  keel 

^7,  Saddle 

2,  Comb 

15,  Thigh 

28,  Sickles 

3,  Eye 

i^,  Vulture  hock 

£9,  Lesser  sickles 

4,  Feathers    covering 

17,  Hock  joint 

SO,  Tail  coverts 

the  ear 

i5.  Shank 

Si,  Main  tail 

6,  Ear  lobe 

19,  Third  toe 

32,  Abdomen 

6,  Muff 

^0,  Middle  toe 

33,  Wing  bow 

7,  Wattles 

21,  Fourth  toe 

34,  Shoulder 

8,  Beard 

22,  Fifth  toe 

35,  Wing  bar 

5,  Beak 

;g5,  Spur 

36,  Wing  bay,  or  sec- 

10, Face 

24,  Foot 

ondary  feathers 

11,  Hackle 

;g5,  Shank  and  toe 

37,  Primary,   or  flight 

W,  Neck 

feathering 

feathers 

13,  Breast 

26,  Back 

38,  Primary  coverts 

§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  217 

Amateur. — A  person  not  well  informed  about  the  art  of 
poultry  raising;  a  beginner;  a  novice. 

Ajitler  Comb. — A  comb  composed  of 
two  small  prongs  somewhat  resembling 
antlers;  a  V-shaped  comb;  common  in 
Polish,  La  Fleche,  and  some  strains  of 
Houdans.-    Fig.  8. 

A.  O.  C. — Any  other  color. 
A.  O.  V. — Any  other  variety. 
Atavism. — Recurrence   to   an  ancestral  ^^'^-  ^ 

type  or  to  a  deformity  or  disease  after  its  disappearance  for 
several  generations;  reversion. 

Band. — (1)  A  stripe  or  marking  of  any  kind  at  the  end  of 
or  across  a  feather.  (2)  A  band  of  metal  or  other  material, 
usually  stamped  with  numbers  or  letters,  or  colored,  for  attach- 
ing to  the  shank  of  a  fowl  so  that  it  can  be  identified. 

Bantam. — ^A  dwarf,  or  pigmy,  fowl,  usually  about  one- 
fifth  the  size  of  a  large  fowl  of  the  variety  to  which  it  corre- 
sponds in  every  particular  except  size. 

Bart). — One  of  the  side  branches  of  a  feather, 
which  collectively  make  up  the  web  and  fluff.  See 
feather. 

Barring. — Bands  of  alternate  colors  that  extend 
across  a  feather.     Fig.  9. 

Barred  to  the  Skin. — An  expression  applied  to 
fowls  whose  feathers  are  barred  from  the  tip  to  the 
end  of  the  fluff,  as  in  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks. 
^°'  ^  Bay. — ^A  reddish-brown  color,  approaching  chest- 

nut ;  also  used  to  designate  eyes  in  fowls  that  have  an  approach 
to  blood-red  color. 

Beak. — ^As  used  by  poultrymen,  the  beak  is  the  bony  for- 
mation extending  from  the  front  of  the 
head  of  chickens  and  turkeys;  it  consists 
of  the  upper  and  lower  mandibles.  See  9, 
Fig.  7.  The  corresponding  part  of  water 
fowls  is.  called  the  bill. 

Bean. — ^A  growth,  resembling  a  thumb  ^ig.  lo 

nail,  on  the  point  of  the  upper  mandible  of  the  bill  of  a  duck, 


218  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

as  shown  at  a,  Fig.  10.  A  like  growth  of  a  smaller  size  is  found 
on  the  bill  of  a  goose. 

Beard. — (1)  A  tuft  of  feathers  under  the  beak  and  about 
the  throat  of  such  fowls  as  Polish,  Houdans,  etc.  See  8, 
Fig.  7.     (2)  A  tuft  of  hair  growing  on  the  breast  of  turkeys. 

Beefy. — A  term  applied  to  coarse,  overgrown  combs;  such 
combs  are  more  commonly  found  on  Mediterranean  fowls 
than  on  those  of  other  varieties. 

Beetle  Brows. — See  brows. 

Bib. — The  English  name  for  beard. 

Bill. — The  mandibles  of  water  fowls,  which  correspond  to 
the  beak  in  other  domestic  fowls. 

Bird. — Fowl  was  the  term  formerly  applied  to  all  winged 
creatiu-es;  modem  usage  restricts  the  name  f^wl  to  the  larger 
domesticated  fowls  and  designates  the  smaller  wild  fowls  as 
birds.  However,  the  term  bird  is  frequently  indiscrimi- 
natingly  used  instead  of  the  term  fowl. 

Blade. — The  rear  part  of  a  single  comb,  generally  called 
the  heel.     See  b,  Fig.  31. 

Blocky. — ^A  term  applied  to  a  fowl  that  is  of  heavy  and 
square  bmld;  said  of  a  fowl  that  is  broad,  or  wide,  between 
the  thighs.  Compare  with  cobby,  an  English  term  that 
expresses  the  same  meaning. 

Bloora. — The  gloss,  sheen,  or  finish  on  the  pltmiage  of 
fowls. 

Body. — Fanciers  usually  apply  the  term  body  to  the  trunk 
of  a  fowl  only. 

Booted. — Fowls  that  are  feathered  on  the  shanks  and  toes 
are  said  to  be  booted. 

Bouquet  Crest. — A  crest  that  stands  up  from  the  head  and 
to  some  extent  resembles  a  bouquet  of  flowers;  found  on 
crested  ducks. 

Brassiness. — A  term  applied  to  a  yellow  or  yellowish  tint 
commonly  foimd  in  the  feathers  of  white  fowls  and  sometimes 
in  the  feathers  of  dark-plimiaged  fowls. 

Breast. — (1)  A  term  applied  to  that  part  of  the  front  of 
the  body  of  Hve  fowls  that  extends  from  the  throat  to  the  point 
of  the  breastbone;  see  13,  Fig.  7.     (2)  The  term  is  applied  also 


§4 


POULTRY  JUDGING 


219 


to  the  meat  on  both  sides  of  the  breastbone  of  fowls  prepared 
for  the  table. 

Breed. — ^A  family  of  fowls  all  of  which  are  of  the  same  dis- 
tinctive shape.  A  breed  may  include  a  nimiber  of  varieties, 
the  fowls  of  all  the  varieties,  having  the  same  shape  but  being 
distinguished  by  different  plimiage  colors  and  markings. 

Breeding  Down. — ^A  term  applied  to  the  process  of  pro- 
ducing small,  or  bantam,  fowls  from  larger  fowls  by  selecting 
and  breeding  the  smallest  fowls  obtainable— a  process  usually 
involving  breeding  through  a  number  of  generations. 

Brick  Color. — ^A  reddish-brown  color  occasionally  found 
on  fowls  of  black-red  varieties. 

Broken  Colored. — See  mottled  and  spangled. 
Brood. — ^A  nimiber  of  chicks  that  are  mothered  by  one  hen 
or  kept  in  one  brooder. 

Broody. — ^When  a  hen  shows  a  desire 
to  sit,  that  is,  to  hatch  eggs,  she  is  said  to 
be  broody. 

Brows. — The  projection  of  the  sktill 
over  the  eyes  of  a  fowl;  as  in  Asiatic  and 
Malay  fowls;  termed  beetle  brows  in 
England.     Fig.  11.  F'^-  ^ 

Cap. — The  upper  part  of  a  fowl's  skull  or  comb;  a  term 
used  in  England. 

Cape. — The  feathers  between  the  shoidders  and  about  the 
neck  underneath  the  hackle. 

Capon. — A  castrated  cock  or  cockerel; 
that  is,  a  male  from  which  the  reproductive 
organs  have  been  removed;  a  female  from 
which  the  reproductive  organs  have  been 
removed  is  called  a  poulard. 

Carriage. — The  general  appearance, 
pose,  or  bearing  of  a  fowl ;  the  way  in  which 
a  fowl  carries  itself  when  walking. 

Caruncles. — Irregular  growths  of  flesh 
such  as  occur  on   the  head  and  neck   of 
Fig.  12  turkeys  and  Muscovy  ducks.     Fig.  12. 

Carunculated. — Covered  with  caruncles. 


220  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

Castrate. — To  remove  the  testicles,  the  organs  of  repro- 
duction, from  a  male  fowl. 

Cavernous. — Said  of  nostrils  that  are  prominent  and  deeply 

,-  cz.-.  -  -  hollowed.     Such    nostrils    are    found    on 

crested  fowls.     Fig.  13. 

Cliain  Armor. — Faulty  lacing  on  the 
■:   claret-colored  breast  of  a  Rouen  drake. 
Chick. — One    of    the   newly   hatched 
young  of  fowls  or  birds. 

Chicken. — Specifically,  a  fowl  less  than 
1  year  old;  commonly,  a  fowl  of  any  age. 
Fig.  13  Cinnamon    Color.- — A    dark    reddish 

buff,  formerly  admissible  on  one  variety  of  Cochins. 

Claret  Color. — Descriptive  of  the  breast  color  of  a  Rouen 
drake. 

Clean  Legged. — A  term  used  in  describing  a  fowl  that  has 
no  feathers  on  its  shanks  or  toes. 

Close  Feathered. — See  tight  feathered. 
Cloudy. — ^A  term  applied  to  plumage  that  has  irregiilar 
markings.     See  mossiness. 

Clutch. — The  number  of  eggs  a  domestic  fowl  incubates, 
or  sits  on,  at  one  time,  usually  from  11  to  15.   -  See  sitting. 
Coat. — The  pltmiage  of  a  fowl  taken  as  a  whole. 
Cob. — A  male  swan. 

Cobby. — A  term  applied  in  England  to  a  fowl  that  is  thick- 
set, heavily  built,  and  round  in  form.     See  blocky. 

Cock. — A  male  fowl  more  than  1  year  old;  the  term  is  com- 
monly applied  to  pit  game  cocks  of  any  age. 

Cockerel. — A  male  fowl  less  than  1  year  old.  The  practice 
in  the  show  room  is  to  allow  males  to  be  shown  as  cockerels 
during  the  entire  show  season  that  follows  their  hatching. 
Compare  with  pullet. 

Cockerel  Bred. — Bred  in  Hne  from  a  mating  made  expressly 
for  producing  cockerels  for  exhibition.  Both  males  and  females 
from  such  matings  are  said  to  be  cockerel  bred.  Compare  with 
pullet  bred. 

Collar. — A  white  ring  around  the  neck,  as  in  Rouen  ducks 
and  in  pheasants. 


§4 


POULTRY  JUDGING 


221 


Color. — ^A  term  applied  to  any  one  of  the  many  hues  that 
may  be  found  on  the  feathers  or  on  any  other  part  of  the  body 
of  a  fowl.  This  term  is  used  also  in  describing  the  coloring  of 
the  entire  plumage.  A  fowl  is  said  to  have  good  color  when 
each  of  its  colors  is  of  the  proper  tint  and  is  found  in  its 
proper  place,  and  to  have  bad  color  when  the  reverse  is  true. 

Comb. — The  fleshy  growth  on  the  top 
of  the  head  of  a  fowl.  See  2,  Fig.  7,  and 
Figs.  8,  11,  22,  26,  28,  31,  and  36. 

Comb  Over. — An  expression  for  lopped 

comb;  used  in  England.     Figs.  14  and  30. 

Comparison  Judging. — Judging  birds 

by  comparing  them  with  one  another,  and 

without  applying  a  score  card. 

Concave  Sweep. — The  continuous 
curve  of  the  back  from  the  shoulder  to  the 
tail;  required  in  some  breeds. 

Condition. — The  state  of  the  health  and  plumage  of  a 
fowl;  sometimes  applied  only  to  the  finish,  or  appearance,  of 
the  plimiage. 

Conditioning. — The  process  of  preparing  a  fowl  for  the 
show  room. 

Coverts. — ^Feathers  that  grow  about  the  tail;  also  the  sec- 
ondary quill  feathers.  See  30  and  38,  Fig.  7,  and  wing  and 
tail  coverts  and  hangers. 

Cradle  Comb. — A  term  formerly  applied  to  the  Wyandotte 
comb;  at  present  but  little  used.     Same  as  rocker  comb. 

Creaminess. — ^A  term  descriptive  of 
white  feathers  that  are  tinged  with  a 
slight  yellow  or  cream  color. 

Crest. — A  tuft  of  feathers  on  top  of  the 
head.     Figs.  15  and  22. 

Crop. — An  enlarged  part  of  the  gullet, 
or  pouch,  in  which  food  is  stored  and  sof- 
tened prior  to  passing  into  the  gizzard. 
Fig-  15  Crop  Bound. — ^A  term  applied  to  an 

unnatural  condition  of  the  crop,  in  which  that  organ  is  stopped 
up  and  food  is  prevented  from  passing  through  it. 


222  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

Cross. — A  mating  of  fowls  of  different  breeds. 

Cross-Bred. — The  offspring  from  two  fowls  of  different 
breeds;  as  from  mating  a  Plymouth  Rock  with  a  Rhode  Island 
Red. 

Curl  Feather. — One  of  the  set  of  curled  feathers  near  the 
base  of  the  back  of  a  male  duck. 

Curve. — ^Any  arched  or  concave  line  on  the  body  of  a  fowl, 
such  as  the  curve  of  the  back,  the  curve  formed  by  the  flowing 
tail  feathers,  or  the  arched  shape  of  the  neck  in  water  fowls. 

Cusliion. — A  raised  mass  of  plumage  due  to  an  excessive 
development  of  soft  feathers  about  the  tail  of  Cochins  and 
some  other  fowls. 

Cushion  Comb. — The  name  applied  in  England  to  the 
comb  of  the  Silky;  a  circular  cushion  of  flesh  with  a  number 
of  small  protuberances  on  it.     Same  as  strawberry  comb. 

Cut. — A  deduction  made  from  the  score  of  a  fowl;  as  a  cut 
of  2  points. 

Cyguet. — A  young  swan. 

Daw  Eyed. — ^A  term  used  at  one  time  to  describe  game 
fowls  that  had  peculiar  eyes  resembling  those  of  a  jackdaw, 
which  were  of  a  pearl  color;  pigeons  with  eyes  of  the  same  kind 
are  said  to  be  pearl  eyed. 

Deaf -Ear. — The  ear  lobe. 

Debarred. — Barred  from  competition. 

Deep  Bodied. — Said  of  fowls  that  have  a  good  depth  of 
body  from  the  top  of  the  back  to  the  lower  side  of  the  breast- 
bone. 

Defect. — ^Any  blemish,  imperfection,  faiilt,  or  lack  of  some 
feattire  or  quality. 

Dewlap. — ^A  growth  of  loose  skin  below  the  beak  or  bill, 
as  in  Brahmas  and  water  fowls.     Fig.  11. 

Diamond. — An  expression  formerly  used  in  place  of  wing 
bay.     See  36,  Fig.  7. 

Dished. — ^When  hollows  or  depressions  appear  in  the  bill 
of  a  water  fowl,  it  is  said  to  be  dished.     See  b,  Fig.  10. 

Disqualification. — ^A  defect  that  will  debar  a  fowl  from 
competition. 

Disqualified. — Condemned;  unfit  for  exhibition. 


§4  POULTRY  JUDGING  223 

Double  Comb. — ^A  term  formerly  applied  to  all  combs 
except  the  single  comb. 

Double  Lacing. — ^A  double  ring  or  penciling  about 
the  outer  edge  of  a  feather.  Fig.  16.  See  supple- 
mentary lacing. 

Double  Mating. — A  system  of  mating  in  which 
males  fit  for  exhibition  are  produced  from  one  pair 
of  breeding  fowls,  and  females  fit  for  exhibition  are 
produced  from  another  pair.  fig-  i6 

Down. — (1)    The    first    downy  covering   of   young   chicks. 
(2)  The  soft  cottonlike  part  of  a  feather  below  the  web;  see  b, 
Fig.  18.     (3)  A  mosslike  growth  between  the  toes. 
Drake. — A  male  duck. 

Dubbing. — The  cutting  off  of  the  comb,  wattles,  and  ear 
lobes  of  game  fowls. 

Duck. — ^A  species  of  water  fowl,  including  both  sexes;  also, 
a  female  of  the  species,  as  distinguished  from  the  male. 
Duckling. — A  young  duck. 
Duck  Foot. — See  web  foot. 

Duck  Footed. — A  fowl  is  said  to  be  duck  footed  when  the 
back  toe  is  carried  close  to  the  other  toes,  instead  of  being  well 
spread  out  behind.     Fig.  17. 

Ear  Lobe. — The  fleshy  growth  below  the 
ear;  this  may  be  red,  white,  or  other  color, 
accorditig  to  the  variety.  Same  as  deaf-ear. 
See  5,  Fig.  7. 

Eggs  for  Hatching. — Eggs  that  are  suit- 
able for  incubation. 

Exhibition  Fowl. — ^A  fowl  suitable  for 
exhibition  in  a  show  room. 

Face. — On  a  fowl,  the  part  of  the  head 
Fig.  17  about  the  eyes  that  is  bare  of  feathers. 

Faking. — A  term  equivalent  in  meaning  to  deceiving;  it 
is  in  frequent  use  by  poultrymen.  Faking  consists  in  removing 
or  dyeing  objectionable  feathers,  in  coloring  shanks  and  feet, 
in  removing  side  sprigs,  or  in  the  use  of  other  unfair  means  to 
win  a  prize  in  a  show  room. 

Fancier. — A  breeder  of  poultry,  pigeons,  or  pet  stock. 


224  POULTRY  JUDGING  §4 

Fancy. — ^A  lax  term  for  fanciers  collectively. 
Featlier. — One  of  the  appendages  peciiliar  to  and  growing 
out  of  the  skin  of  a  fowl  or  a  bird,  collectively  forming  the 
plinnage.     Fig.  18.     A  feather  is  commonly  composed  of  the 
^^^^      following   principal   parts:    web   a,    in  which   the 
«  barbs  are  stuck  together,  forming  a  thin,  smooth 
sheet;  the  fluff,  or  down  b,  in  which  the  barbs  are 
not  united;  the  shaft,  quill,  or  barrel,  which  is  com- 
posed of  a  lower  hollow  and  tubular  part  c,  and 
an  upper  part  d,  which  is  filled  with  pith. 

Featlier   Cell. — The   cell   in   the    body   from 
which  a  feather  grows. 
Fig.  18  Featlier    Legged. — Said    of    fowls    that    have 

feathers  growing  on  the  sides  of  the  shanks  and  toes;  booted. 
See  25,  Fig.  7. 

Fillers. — The  small  feathers  that  grow  between  the  main 
tail  feathers. 

Finisli. — Gloss  on  plimiage. 

First-Cross  Fowls. — Fowls  resulting  from  the  first  crossing 
of  standard-bred  males  and  females  of  different  breeds. 
Flat  Sliin. — A  flat  part  on  the  shank  of  a  game  fowl. 
Flight  Coverts. — Short  feathers  that  grow  at  the  base  of 
the  flight  feathers  and  partly  cover  them.     See  88,  Fig.  7. 

Fliglits,  or  Fliglit  Feathers. — The  primary  feathers  on 
the  wing  of  a  fowl.     See  37,  Fig.  7.    ■ 

Flow. — Said  of  feathers  that  hang  loosely  or  sweepingly. 
Fluff. — (1)  The  downy  or  lower  part  of  a  feather;  see  b, 
Fig.  18.     (2)  The  profuse  soft  feathering  about  the  thighs  and 
abdomen;  see  5^,  Fig.  7. 

Fluffing. — The  act  of  bending  or  breaking  the  shafts  and 
quills  of  the  feathers  in  the  fluff,  cushion,  and  tail  feathering 
of  Asiatic  Bantam  and  other  Asiatic  fowls,  to  build  them  out 
into  imnatural  size.     This  constitutes  faking. 

Folded  Comb. — ^A  comb  that  falls  over  to  one  side  and  folds 
back,  forming  a  loop. 

Foreign  Color. — Any  color  found  on  a  fowl  that  is  not 
characteristic  of  or  standard  for  the  variety  to  which  the 
fowl  belongs. 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  225 

Form. — As  applied  to  fowls  in  the  show  room,  form  refers 
to  their  condition  and  finish. 

Foul  Feathers. — Feathers  that  are  marked  with  foreign 
color. 

Fowl. — A  domestic  cock,  hen,  cockerel,  or  pullet. 

Foxy. — See  rusty. 

Frizzle  Feathers. — Feathers  that  are  crinkled  or  curled. 

Frosting. — Irregular  markings  or  lacing  of  a  light  color. 
Similar  markings  of  a  dark  color  give  the  appearance  of  mossi- 
ness. 

Furnished. — ^A  fowl  is  said  to  be  furnished  when  it  has  a 
complete  growth  of  tail,  hackle,  and  saddle  plumage,  and  a 
well-developed  comb  and  other  head  points. 

Furnishings. — Same  as  hangers. 

Gaff. — ^A  steel  spur. 

Gamy. — Like  a  game  fowl;  full  of  fight. 

Gay. — A  fowl  is  said  to  be  gay  when  it  has  spangled, 
splashed,  or  colored  plumage  with  an  excessive  amount  of 
white  on  it. 

Gills. — An  improper  name  for  the  wattles. 

Gloss. ^ — -The  luster  on  the  surface  of  feathers. 

Gobbler. — ^A  male  turkey. 

Gray. — ^A  color  produced  by  a  mixture  of  black  and  white; 
it  is  of  different  shades,  according  to  the  proportions  of  black 
and  white,  as  in  the  plumage  of  Dark  Brahmas  and  Silver- 
Gray  Dorkings. 

Ground  Color. — In  fowls,  the  main,  or  principal,  color  in 
the  pltmiage;  for  example,  in  a  Buff  Laced  Polish  fowl,  the  buff 
is  the  ground  color. 

Gullet. — The  opening  through  which  food  passes. 

Gypsy  Color. — Purple  color,  as  found  on  the  face  of  some 
game  fowls;  also  called  mulberry  color. 

Hackle  Feathers. — The  long,  flowing  feathers  that  grow 
on  the  neck  of  a  fowl ;  more  plentiful  in  males  than  in  females. 
See  ii.  Fig.  7.     See  hackle. 

Hangers. — ^An  improper  name  for  saddle  feathers. 

Hatch. — (1)  To  produce  young  from,  that  is,  to  cause  young 
to  develop  in  and  come  forth  from  an  egg  by  either  natural  or 


226  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

artificial  incubation.     (2)  A  brood  hatched  at  one  sitting  or 
one  incubation. 

Hard  Feathers. — Firm,  close  feathering,  such  as  is  fotind 
on  game  fowls. 

Hen. — A  mature  female  domestic  fowl. 

Hen  Feathered. — Said  of  a  male  fowl  with  a  tail  like  a  hen, 
as  in  the  males  of  Sebrights  and  some  varieties  of  game  fowls. 

Hen  Tailed. — Same  as  hen  feathered. 

Henny. — -A  term  applied  to  a  male  fowl,  usually  a  game,  that 
has  tail  or  other  plumage  resembling  that  of  a  hen. 

Hlgh-ln-Back. — A  term  used  in  England  to  describe  htimp 
or  roach  back. 

Hock. — The  joint  between  the  thigh  and  the  shank.  See  17, 
Fig.  7. 

Hollowed  Place  in  Comb. — A  depression  in  the  comb  of 
a  fowl ;  same  as  a  thumb  mark.     Fig.  30. 

Hood. — Neck  feathers  that  curve  forwards  over  the  head. 

Horn  Comb. — Same  as  antler  comb   and  Y-shaped  comb. 

Horseshoe  Lacing. — Lacing  forming  a  horseshoe  about 
the  tip  of  a  feather.     Fig.  19. 

Hunap  Back. — ^A  fowl  with  a  hump  back  is  one 
that  has  a  knob,  lump,  or  prominence  on  the  back. 

Hybrid. — The  offspring  from  two  birds  of  differ- 
ent species;  as  from  mating  a  goldfinch  with  a  canary, 
or  a  turkey  with  a  guinea. 

Ideal. — Of  a  perfection  that  is  seldom  realized. 
Inbred  Fowl.— An  offspring  from  closely  related 

^'^-  '^      fowls. 

Inbreeding. — Breeding,  or  following  a  course  of  breeding, 
from  nearly  related  fowls. 

Incubate. — See  hatch  and  sit. 

Irregular  Lacing. — Incomplete  or  imperfect  lacing  about 
the  edge  of  a  feather. 

Jaw. — In  a  fowl,  the  jaw  is  that  part  of  the  head  that 
supports  the  upper  and  lower  mandibles. 

Keel. — (1)  The  lower  edge  of  the  breastbone.  (2)  The 
loose  flesh  and  feathers  hanging  below  the  breast  in  ducks  and 
other  poultry. 


§4 


POULTRY  JUDGING 


227 


Knee  Joint. — Same  as  hock  joint.     See  17,  Fig.  7. 
Knob. — The  protuberance  on  a  goose  at  the  juncture  of  the 
head  and  the  bill. 

Knock  KJneed. — ^A  malformation  of 
the  legs  of  a  fowl,  in  which  the  hock 
joints  come  close  together  instead  of  being 
well  apart  as  they  should  be.     Fig.  20. 

Lacing. — The  edging  along  the 
margin  of  a  feather;  it  is  usually 
darker  in  color  than  the  body  of 
the  feather.     Fig.  21. 

Leader. — The  spike,  or  heel,  on 
a  rose  comb — the  part  that  extends 
Fig.  20  to  the  rear.     See  a,  Fig.  28.  Fig.  21 

Leaf  Comb. — A  comb  consisting  of  two  small  sections,  each 
shaped  like  a  leaf.     Fig.  22. 

Leggy. — ^A  fowl  is  said  to  be  leggy  when  it  has  too  great  length 
in  legs. 

Leg  and  Toe  Feathering. — The  feathering  on  both  the 
shanks  and  feet;  booting.     See  25,  Fig.  7. 

Lesser  Sickles. — ^The  smaller  tail  feath- 
ers next  to  the  full,  flowing  sickles.  See  29, 
Fig.  7. 

Line  Breeding. — Breeding,  or  following 
a  course  of  breeding,  from  a  limited  number 
of  original  fowls.  In  line  breeding  the  fowls 
mated  are  not  so  closely  related  as  those 
mated  in  inbreeding.  Line  breeding  is  really 
a  modified  form  of  inbreeding.  ^^^'  ^^ 

Loop. — ^A    double    fold    in    the    comb,    as    in    a    Minorca 
female. 

Lopped  Comb. — ^A  comb  that  falls  over  on  either  side. 
Same  as  comb  over.     Figs.  14  and  30. 

Low  Built. — Said  of  a  fowl  that  is  very  short  in  the  legs  and 
hence  carries  its  body  close  to  the  ground. 
Lump  Comb. — Same  as  strawberry  comb. 
Made  Form. — The  form  that  may  be  produced  in  a  fowl  by 
training. 


228 


POULTRY  JUDGING 


Main  Tail  Feathers. — The  stiff  feathers  of  the  tail  under 
and  between  the  sickles  and  coverts.     See  31,  Fig.  7. 

Mandibles. — The  homy  upper  and  lower  parts  of  the  beak 
or  bill. 

Marbled. — A  term  used  to  describe  ticked  or  laced  feathers 
on  the  breast  of  Pyle  Game  cocks. 

Markings. — Striping,  lacing,  barring,  or  marks  of  any  kind 
on  the  plumage. 

Mazarine. — Deep-blue  or  purplish  markings  across  a  black 
feather. 

Mealy. — ^A  term  used  to  describe  plumage  that 
should  be  one  solid  color  but  is  covered  with  irregu- 
lar dots  of  mixed  or  faulty  color. 

Moon. — A  rounded  spot  of  color  tipping  the  feath- 
ers of  fowls  of  some  varieties. 

Mossiness. — ^An  effect  produced  by  irregular  dark 
Fig.  23      markings.     Fig.  23.     See  frosting. 
Molt.— (1)  To  cast  off  or  shed  the  feathers  of  fowls.     (2)  The 
act  or   process   of  molting.      (3)    The   season   or   period   of 
molting. 

Mottled. — Marked  with  spots  or  blotches  of  different 
colors. 

Mulberry  Color. — See  gypsy  color. 

Muff,  Muffle,  Muffling. — ^A  growth  of  feathers  on  either 
side  o'f  the  head,  usually  seen  on  bearded  fowls,  and  very 
marked  in  Faverolles.     See  6,  Fig.  7. 

Natuj'al  Form. — The  natural  appearance  of  a  fowl  without 
training. 

Non-Sitter. — ^A  fowl  that  does  not  incu- 
bate eggs. 

Novice. — A  beginner;  an  inexperienced 
person. 

Open  Barring. — Barring  in  which  the 
bars  are  wide  apart.     Fig.  24. 

Open  Lacing. — Narrow  lacing  about  the 
edge  of  a  feather  and  forming  a  ring  around      ^"^'  ^^ 
a  spot  of  another  color,  giving  the  feather  the  appearance  of 
having  a  large  open  center.     Fig.  25. 


Fig.  24 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  229 

Overlap. — To  lie  partly  over;  said  of  the  colors  on  plumage 
when  they  meet  on  a  ragged  edge,  giving  the  appearance  of 
one  color  overlapping  another. 

Parti -Colored. — Of  several  colors;  variegated. 

Pea  Coinb. — ^A  small,  low  comb  divided  lengthwise  into  three 
parts,  and  having  the  appearance  of  three  small  single  combs 
placed  side  by  side,  as  on  the  Brahma  and 
Aseel.     Figs.  11  and  26. 

Pearl  Eyed. — See  daw  eyed. 

Pen. — (1)  An  enclosirre.  (2)  A  female 
swan. 

Penciling. — Narrow  lines  or  markings. 
The  term  penciling  is  applied  to  several 
kinds  of  markings  on  poultry:     (1)  The  Fig.  26 

bars  on  the  feathers  of  Penciled  Hamburgs.  (2)  The  con- 
centric lines  that  follow  the  outline  of  the  feather  in  Dark 
Brahmas  and  Partridge  Cochins.  Fig.  27.  (3)  The 
fine  gray  markings  on  Rouen  drakes.  (4)  The  stip- 
pling as  found  on  Leghorns  and  Black-Breasted  Red 
Game  females. 

Pen  Manners. — The  behavior  of  fowls  in  pens  in 
the  show  room. 

Fig.  27  Pen  of  Fowls. — In  the  show  room,  a  pen  of  one 

male  and  foirr  females. 

Peppered. — Plumage  is  said  to  be  peppered  when  it  is  dotted 
with  spots. 

Pile. — The  spelling  used  in  England  for  Pyle. 

Pinion. — (1)  The  outermost  section  of  the  wing  of  a  bird, 
bearing  the  pinion  feathers.  (2)  To  cut  off  the  outer  parts 
of  a  bird's  wing  that  bears  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 
feathers  used  in  flying,  in  order  to  prevent  flying. 

Pit. — ^An  enclosed  space  in  which  fowls  are  pitted  against 
each  other;  hence,  a  fighting  place  for  fowls. 

Plumage. — The  feathers  and  down. 

Point. — One  of  the  tapering,  sharp-ended  serrations  of  the 
upper  part  of  a  single  comb.     See  a.  Fig.  31.     Same  as  serration. 

Poulard. — A  female  fowl,  usually  a  pullet,  in  which  the 
egg-producing  organs  have  been  destroyed. 


230  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

Poult. — A  young  turkey. 
Poultry. — All  domestic  fowls. 

Prepotency. — The  superiority  of  one  parent  over  the  other 
in  transmitting  characters  to  the  offspring ;  that  is,  in  stamping 
its  individuality  on  the  offspring. 

Primaries.— The  flight  feathers.     See  37,  Fig.  7. 
Producer. — ^A   fowl   that   produces   offspring  better   than 
itself. 

Pullet. — ^A  female  fowl  less  than  a  year  old.  Show-room 
practice  allows  a  fowl  to  be  exhibited  as  a  pullet  during  the 
entire  show  season  that  follows  the  hatching. 

Pullet  Bred. — Bred  in  line  from  a  mating  made  expressly 
for  producing  pullets  for  exhibition.  Both  males  and  females 
from  such  matings  are  called  pullet  bred.  Compare  with 
cockerel  bred. 

Pure  Bred. — ^Fowls  that  have  no  alien  blood  in  them  are 
said  to  be  ptue  bred. 

Purply. — The  effect  produced  by  purple  bars  across  a  black 
feather. 

Quill. — See  feather,  and  c,  Fig.  18, 

Quill  Bound. — A  condition  in  which  the  feather  is  retained 
in  its  sheath,  instead  of  the  sheath  cracking  and  falling  off. 

Racy.^-A  fowl  that  is  slender,  trim,  active,  alert,  or  tight 
feathered  is  said  to  be  racy. 

Reacliy. — Said  of  fowls  that  have  an  upright  carriage  and 
are  tall,  such  as  game  fowls. 

Ribbon. — The  bright-blue  band  across  the  wings  of  Rouen 
and  other  ducks. 

Roacb  Back. — ^A  back  with  a  hump; 
same  as  himip  back. 

Rocker  Comb. — ^A  term  formerly 
applied  to  the  Wyandotte  comb;  same 
as  cradle  comb. 

Rooster. — Common  name  for  a  cock 

or  a  cockerel. 

Rose  Comb. — ^A  broad,  level  comb. 

wide  in  front,  tapering  to  a  spike,  or  point,  in  the  rear,  and 

covered  on  the  top  with  small  projections,  or  points,  as  in 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  231 

Hamburgs  and  Rose-Comb  Bantams.     Fig.  28.     At  a  is  shown 
the  spike. 

Rosy  Wings. — ^Wings  of  Pyle  females,  which  are  marked 
with  salmon  color;  wings  of  the  same  color  were  formerly 
called  foxy  colored. 

Ruff. — Same  as  muff. 

Rusty  Color. — The  reddish-brown  shadings  on  the  outside 
of  the  wings  of  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  and  Brown  Leghorn 
females.     In  England,  the  same  shading  is  called  foxy. 

Saddle. — That  portion  of  the  back  of  a  male  fowl  between 
the  middle  of  the  back  and  the  base  of  the  tail. 

Saddle  Feathers. — The  flowing  feathers  growing  from  the 
saddle  of  a  fowl. 

Saddle  Hackles. — The  long,  flowing  feathers  that  grow 
from  the  saddle  of  a  male  and  hang  down  on  both  sides  of  the 
body;  also  called  saddle  hangers  and  saddle  feathers.  See  27, 
Fig.  7. 

Salmon. — A  reddish  or  pinkish  orange  color,  like  that  found 
on  the  breast  of  Red  Pyle  Game  females  and  Brown  Leghorn 
females. 

Scales. — Thin,  homy  growths  covering  the  shanks  and 
feet. 

Scaly  Leg. — ^A  diseased  condition  of  the  shanks  and  feet, 
caused  by  the  scaly-leg  mite. 

Secondaries. — The  long  quill  feathers  of  the  wings  that 
grow  on  the  second  joint  or  next  to  and  above  the  primaries. 
See  36,  Fig.  7. 

Section. — ^A  distinctly  defined  part  of  a  standard- 
bred  fowl. 

Self-Color. — ^A  uniform  color. 

Serrated. — Notched  along  the  edge  like  a  saw. 

Serration. — One  of  the  points  of  a  single  comb. 
See  a,  Fig.  31. 

Shaft.— See  feather,  and  d.  Fig.  18.  F'g.  29 

Shafty. — ^A  term  describing  a  dark-colored  feather  with  a 
light  shaft.     Fig.  29. 

Shank. — That  part  of  the  leg  between  the  toes  and  the  hock 
joint.     See  18,  Fig.  7. 


232 


POULTRY  JUDGING 


§4 


Sliaiili  Feathers.— Feathers  growing  on  the  outside  edge  of 
the  shank.     See  25,  Fig.  7. 

Sh-ank  Line. — ^A  Hne  that  would  be  formed  by  drawing  a 
straight  Hne  along  the  rear  edge  of  the  shank  upwards  through 
the  body  of  a  fowl. 

Slieatli. — The  covering  over  a  new  feather;  it  splits  and  falls 
off  as  the  feather  develops. 

Sheen. — The  glistening  brightness,  or  gloss,  on  plumage. 
Shoulder. — The  front  or  upper  part  of  the  wing;  it  is  round 
or  bow  shaped  and  is  hidden  in  fowls  of 
some  breeds  by  the  breast  plumage  and 
hackle ;  in  game  fowls  it  stands  out  promi- 
nently.    See  54,  Fig.  7. 

Shoulder  Butt. — Same  as  shoulder. 
Show-Room  Form. — The  form  that  a 
fowl  has  in  the  show  room. 

Sickles. — The  top  pair  of  curved  feath- 
ers in  the  tail  of  male  fowls.  One  or  two 
pairs  similar  to  these,  but  below  them,  are 
called  the  lesser  sickles.  See  28  and  29, 
Fig.  7. 

^"^"  ^°  Side  Spike. — Same  as  side  sprig. 

Side  Sprig. — An  extra  point,  or  growth,  at  the  side  or  near 
the  end  of  a  single  comb.     Fig.  30. 

Silvery.— A  term  applied  to  the  appearance  of  the  shoulders 
of  barred  fowls  that  are  deficient  in  barring  and  that  have  light, 
or  silvery,  markings  on  these  parts  instead 
of  the  customary  barring. 

Single  Color. — Same  as  whole  color. 
Single  Comb. — ^A  thin,  serrated,  fleshy 
growth  on  the  top  of  the  head  of  a  fowl, 
as  in  Plymouth  Rocks  and  Leghorns. 
Fig.  31.  At  a  is  one  of  the  serrations,  or 
points;  at  6,  the  blade. 

Single  Mating. — ^A  mating  from  which 
both  males  and  females  fit  for  exhibition 
are  produced  from  a  single  pair  of  breeding  fowls, 
mating. 


See  double 


§4 


POULTRY  JUDGING 


233 


Sit. — To  cover  eggs  for  hatching;  incubate. 
Sitters. — Fowls  that  sit  on  and  incubate  eggs.     The  sitting 
proclivities  are  stronger  in  some  breeds  than  in  others.     Fowls 
in  which  the  sitting  proclivities  are  weak 
are  said  to  be  non-sitters. 

Sitting. — The  act  of  sitting  to  incubate 
eggs ;  also,  the  number  of  eggs  for  a  sitting, 
usually  from  11  to  15.     See  clutch. 

Slipped  Wing. — ^A  wing  in  which  the 
flight,  or  secondary,  wing  feathers  hang 
loose  or  out  of  place.     Fig.  32. 

Smooth  Legs. — Legs  that  have  no  feathers,  stubs,  or  down 
on  the  shanks. 

Smut. — ^A  term  applied  to  dark  color  overlying  any  sec- 
tion of  a  fowl. 

Solid  Color. — Of  one  uniform  color  throughout;  self -color. 
Spangle. — A  dark  marking  at  the  point,  or  tip,  of 
a  feather.     Fig.  33. 

Spike. — The  rear  point  on  a   rose    comb;    some- 
times called  a  leader.     See  a,  Fig.  28. 

Splashed  Feathers. — Feathers  in  which  there  is 
an  uneven  mixture  of  color. 

Split  Crest. — ^A  rounded  crest  that  is   split  and 
falls  over  on  both  sides. 

Sport. — ^A  fowl  that  varies 
from  the  normal  type;  a  white  offspring 
from  black  parents. 

Spur. — A  homy  growth  on  the  inside 
of  the  shank  of  a  cock.     See  23,  Fig.  7. 

Squirrel  Tail. — ^A  tail  in  which  the 
feathers  are  carried  so  far  forwards  as 
almost  to  touch  the  head,  like  the  tail  of  a 
squirrel.     Fig.  34. 

Stag. — ^A   young   game    cock;    also,    a  _ 

turkey  cock.  Fig.  34 

Standard  Mating. — A  mating  in  Avhich  the  fowls  conform 
to  Standard  description ;  sometimes  called  single  mating  when 
the  purpose  is  the  production  of  both  males  and  females. 


234 


POULTRY  JUDGING 


§4 


Station. — Manner  of  standing;  attitude,  or  pose  of  a  fowl. 
A  fowl  is  said  to  have  good  station  when  it  has  a  form  typical 
of  the  breed  to  which  it  belongs,  has  good  symmetry,  and  the 
proper  height  and  reach.  Station  is  a  term  applied  more 
especially  to  game  fowls.     Compare  with  carriage. 

Steppings. — ^A  term  used  in  England  to  describe  the  effect 
produced  by  the  ends  of  the  secondary  feathers,  each  one  of 
which  is  shorter  than  the  one  immediately  below  it,  giving  the 
appearance  of  a  flight  of  steps. 

Stippling. — The  effect  produced  on  plumage  by 
dots  of  dark  and  of  light  shades  of  color,  as  in  Brown 
Leghorn  females.     Fig.  35. 

Strain. — Fowls   of   one  variety   that  have  been 
bred  in  line  for  a  number  of  generations  from  a  few 
Fig.  35    Original  fowls. 

Strawberry  Comb. — ^A  lump  comb,  some- 
what resembling  a  strawberry  in  shape,  as  in 
Malays  and  Silkies.     Fig.  36. 

Striping. — Markings  of  dark  color  that 
extend  down  the  middle  of  a  feather  and  taper 
to  a  point  near  the  tip  of  the  feather,  as  in 
Light   Brahmas,    Brown  Leghorns,  and  some 

other  fowls.     Fig.  37.  f^^-  36 

Stub. — ^A  short  piece  of  the  quill  of  a  feather; 
especially,  a  short  piece  of  the  quill  of  a  feather 
occasionally  foimd  on  the  shanks  of  smooth-legged 
fowls. 

Style. — ^A  fowl  is  said  to  have  style  when  it 
presents  a  fine,  spirited  appearance,  and  has  good 
S5niimetry,  station,  and  carriage. 

Supplementary   Lacing. — An   outside  edging 
or  lacing  of  a  different  shade  or  tint  than  the  color 
next  to  it,  that  is  found  on  both  laced  and  solid 
feathers.     When  it  occurs  on  laced  feathers,  as  an 
Fig.  37      edging    of  white    around    the    outside    of    black 
lacing,  it  is  the  same  as  double  lacing.     Fig.  16. 

Surface  Color. — The  color  on  the  parts  of  the  feathers 
exposed  tc  view. 


§  4  POULTRY  JUDGING  235 

Sword  Feather. — ^A  main  tail  feather  of  a  Japanese  Ban- 
tam male. 

Symmetry. — The  blending  of  all  sections  or  parts  of  a 
fowl  into  a  harmonious  whole. 

Tall  Coverts. — The  curved,  soft  feathers  about  the  sides 
of  the  lower  part  of  the  tail  feathers.     See  30,  Fig.  7. 

Tall  Feathers. — The  stiff,  or  main,  feathers  of  the  tail. 
See  31,  Fig.  7. 

Team. — Three  or  more  fowls  shown  by  one  exhibitor. 

Thigh. — The  upper  segment  of  the  leg;  it  is  included 
between  the  body  of  the  fowl  and  the  upper  extremity  of  what 
is  known  as  the  drumstick. 

Thoroughbred. — (1)  Of  the  best  or  the  purest  breeding;  in 
this  sense,  now  generally  replaced  by  the  term  standard  bred. 
(2)  A  term  descriptive  of  game  cocks  of  high  courage  and  spirits. 

Throat. — Same  as  gullet. 

Thumb  Mark. — (1)  A  hollow  place  in  the  side  of  a  single 
comb.  Fig.  30.  (2)  An  opening  or  split  in  the  front  or  cen- 
ter of  a  rose  comb. 

Ticked. — ^Plumage  is  ticked  when  it  has  spots  of  color 
different  from  the  rest  of  the  plumage. 

Tight  Feathered. — ^Fowls  are  said  to  be  tight  feathered 
when  the  feathers  lie  close  to  the  body;  close  feathered. 

Tom. — ^A  male  turkey;  a  gobbler. 

Top  Color. — The  color  of  the  plumage  on  the  back. 

Topknot. — ^A  tufted  growth  of  feathers  on  the  top  of  the 
head  of  a  fowl;  a  crest.     Figs.  15  and  22. 

Training. — The  teaching  or  drilling  of  a  fowl  to  pose  in 
the  show  room. 

Trlcolored. — Of  three  colors. 

Trimming. — ^A  fraudulent  way  of  preparing  a  fowl  for  the 
show  room.     See  faking. 

Trio. — Three;  in  poultry,  a  male  and  two  females. 

Trunk. — The  body  of  a  fowl,  as  distinguished  from  its 
appendages,  the  legs,  neck,  head,  etc. 

Tucked  Up. — ^A  fowl  is  said  to  be  tucked  up  when  the 
abdomen  lacks  fulness  and  makes  a  sharp  upward  turn  to  the 
tail,  as  in  game  fowls. 


236  POULTRY  JUDGING  §  4 

Twisted  Comb. — ^A    comb  twisted  into   curves  or   some 
other  iavtlty  shape.     Fig.  38. 

Type. — The  form  pecuUar  to  any  breed. 

Under  Plujmage. — The  fluff  or  under 

part  of  the  plumage,  seen  only  when  the 

feathers  are  separated.     See  feather,  and 

b,  Fig.  18. 

Utility  Fowl. — A  fowl  for  egg  pro- 
duction and  market  purposes,  as  distin- 
guished from  an  exhibition  fowl. 

Variety. — ^A  subdivision  of  a  breed; 
^^^-  ^^  distinguished  from  other  varieties  of  the 

same  breed  by  the  plumage  colors.     See  breed. 

Y- Shaped  Corab. — A  comb  having  two  points  or  prongs; 
also  called  antler  comb,  and  horn  comb.     Fig.  8. 

Vulture  Hock. — ^A  hock  like  that  of  a  vulture,  which  has 
stiff  feathers  growing  from  the  hock  joint.     See  16,  Fig.  7. 

Washiness. — ^A  state  or  quality  of  a  feather  that  appears 
to  have  had  the  color  washed  out  of  it. 

Waster. — ^A  fowl  unfit  for  breeding  purposes,  but  fit  for  food. 
Wattles. — Pendant  growths  of  flesh  that  hang  on  each  side 
of  the  beak;  most  prominently  developed  in  male  fowls. 

Web. — (1)  The  upper  part  of  a  feather  where  the  barbs 
are  stuck  together;  the  flat,  thin  feather  structure  beyond  the 
fluff  part  of  the  feather.  See  feather  and  a,  Fig.  18.  (2)  The 
skin  growing  between  the  toes.  (3)  The  skin  between  the 
joints  of  the  wing. 

Web  Foot. — ^A  foot  with  webs  between  the  toes.  When  a 
fowl  other  than  a  water  fowl  has  a  foot  with  webs  between  the 
toes,  it  is  said  to  have  a  web  foot. 

Wheaten. — ^An  uneven  brown  like  that  on  ripe  standing 
wheat;  peculiar  to  some  females  of  the  Black-Breasted  Red 
Games  and  the  Faverolles. 

Whip  Tail. — The  fine,  slim  tail  of  the  modem  game  or 
game  bantam  fowl. 

Whiskers. — Feathers  growing  from  the  side  of  the  face; 
same  as  muff.  Sometimes  applied  to  the  muffling  below  the 
beak.     See  6,  Fig.  7. 


§4 


POULTRY  JUDGING 


237 


Whole  Color. — A  fowl  is  said  to  be  of  a  whole  color  when 
all  of  its  plumage  is  of  one  color,  as  buff  or  black,  but  this  does 
not  mean  that  all  the  plumage  must  be  of  one  shade  of  the 
color. 

Willow  Color. — A  greenish  yellow  color  peculiar  to  the 
shanks  of  some  game  fowls. 

Wing  Bar. — A  bar  of  dark  color  across  the  middle  of  a 
wing.     See  35,  Fig.  7. 

Wing  Bay. — ^A  triangular  surface  showing  on  the  wing 
where  it  is  folded;  located  between  the  wing  bar  and  the  point 
of  the  wing.     See  36,  Fig.  7. 

Wing  Bow. — The  surface  of  the  wing  between  the  wing 
bar  and  the  shoulder.     See  S3,  Fig.  7. 

Wing  Butts. — The  ends  of  the  flight  feathers;  a  misnomer 
for  wing  points. 

Wing  Coverts. — The  feathers  that 
cover  the  roots  of  the  secondary  flight 
feathers. 

Wing  Fronts. — ^The  fronts  of  the  wings, 
properly  called  shoulders ;  improperly  called 
wing  butts. 

Wing  Points. — The  extreme  outer  ends 
of  the  flight  feathers. 

Work,  Full  of  Work. — A  term  used  in 
England  to  describe  a  well-finished  rose 
comb,   the    points  of   which   are   perfect 

Wry  Tail. — A  tail  carried  to  one  side. 


or .  nearly  perfect. 
Fig.  39. 


AMERICAN  FOWLS 


PLYMOUTH  ROCK 


ORIGIN 


1.  The  early  or  original  Plymoutli  Rock  fowls  existed  in 
several  localities,  and  were  different  in  each.  The  fowls  from 
which  they  originated  were  mostly  Asiatic — ^Java,  Shanghai, 
Cochin,  and  Langshan.  Crosses  claimed  to  have  been  made 
for  the  production  of  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  were:  (1)  Black 
Spanish  with  White  Cochin  fowls,  the  offspring  being  crossed 
with  Dominique  fowls;  the  Black  Spanish  used  in  this  cross 
were  not  the  White-Faced  Black  Spanish  fowls  of  the  present, 
but  a  fowl  like  the  Black  Minorca,  with  red  face  and  white  ear 
lobes.  (2)  Black  Spanish  with  Gray  Dorking  fowls,  the  off- 
spring being  crossed  with  Dominique  fowls;  the  Black  Spanish 
fowls  were  the  same  as  those  just  described;  the  Dorkings  were 
of  the  original,  single-comb,  five-toed,  gray  variety.  (3)  Dom- 
inique males  with  Buff  Cochin  females,  the  offspring  being 
mated  with  Dominique  males,  giving  a  double  cross  of  the  Dom- 
inique male  with  the  Cochin  female.  Numerous  other  crosses 
were  made,  and  the  best  offspring  from  all  these  were  selected 
and  used  in  the  formation  of  the  original  Pl3niiouth  Rock  fowls. 

2.  Modem  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  were  produced  by  cross- 
ing Dominique  males  with  Black  Java  females,  and  selecting 
and  mating  the  best  offspring  with  Dominiques;  the  offspring 
from  these  crosses  were  mated  and  remated  until  the  present 
type  of  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  was  begun.  The  fowls  so  pro- 
duced were  described  in  1874  as  follows:     The  plumage  of  the 

239 


240  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

male  was  dark  or  light  steel  gray,  and  free  from  splashes  of  red, 
black,  or  white;  no  mention  was  made  of  barring  in  the  males. 
The  females  were  described  as  having  dark  or  steel-gray  plu- 
mage, mottled  with  black  and  white,  with  a  well-defined  black- 
and-white  bar  across  each  feather. 


BARRED  PLYMOUTH  ROCK 


ORIGIN,    DEVELOPMENT,    HISTORY,    AND    DESCRIPTION 

3.  Origin. — ^Whether  the  Barred  Plymoutli  Rock  has 

descended  directly  from  any  one  of  the  original  crosses  or  from 
the  best  that  could  be  selected  from  among  them,  is  uncertain. 
Many  claims  have  been  made  regarding  the  origin  of  the 
Barred  Plymouth  Rock,  but  after  examining  all  the  authentic 
information  it  seems  impossible  to  make  any  definite  statement 
on  this  point.  It  has,  however,  been  well  established  that  the 
fowls  of  this  variety  have  been  developed  to  their  present  excel- 
lence by  selecting  and  mating  together  the  best  individuals  that 
could  be  bred. 

4.  Development. — The  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  have 
been  developed  by  the  poultry  fanciers  of  America.  For  many 
years  there  was  considerable  controversy  relative  to  their  form 
and  color,  and  until  the  Standard  of  1883  was  established  there 
was  no  definite  understanding  as  to  what  their  form  and  color 
should  be;  since  that  time  size,  shape,  and  color  have  been  so 
well  established  that  deterioration  is  now  almost  impossible. 

5.  History. — The  two  breeds  most  directly  connected  with 
the  making  of  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  were  the  Java  and 
the  Dominique.  The  Java,  which  is  of  Asiatic  origin,  had 
black  or  brownish-black  plimiage,  a  single  comb,  and  no 
feathers  on  the  shanks  or  toes;  the  Dominique,  which  was  of 
the  American  rose-comb  variety,  had  about  the  same  color  and 
barring  as  now.  The  most  successful  crosses  are  credited  to 
the  fanciers  of  Connecticut.  The  offspring  of  these  crosses 
were  the  foundation  stock  of  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  as 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  241 

they  exist  at  the  present  time.  This  variety  was  very  generally 
adopted  by  the  fanciers  of  New  England,  and  later,  by  careful 
breeding,  many  strains  were  established. 

6.  Description. — The  Plymouth  Rock  is  a  fowl  of  medium 
proportions,  being  midway  in  size  and  general  formation 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  Asiatic  fowls.  A  long,  slen- 
der head  in  either  males  or  females  would  be  as  improper  as 
extreme  length  in  body,  neck,  or  tail.  The  size  of  the  body  of 
a  fowl  is  too  frequently  judged  according  to  its  weight.  Length 
of  body,  as  given  in  the  Standard,  is  determined  largely  from 
the  lay  of  the  feathers.  In  t\i\l  plimiage,  the  close  feathering 
of  the  Plymouth  Rock  gives  its  body  the  appearance  of  being 
of  greater  length  than  that  of  the  Wyandotte,  although,  in 
reality,  both  fowls  are  of  about  the  same  length;  accordingly, 
the  Standard  gives  the  length  of  the  Plymouth  Rock  as  mediimi, 
and  of  the  Wyandotte  as  short. 

The  most  commonly  accepted  form  and  color  of  Barred 
Plymouth  Rock  fowls  are  shown  in  the  color  illustrations  of 
these  fowls. 

According  to  the  Standard,  the  weight  of  exhibition  Plym- 
outh Rock  fowls  is  as  foUows:  Cocks,  9^  pounds;  cockerels, 
8  pounds;  hens,  7|  pounds;  pullets,  6  pounds.  It  is  not  unu- 
sual-for  exhibition  Plymouth  Rocks  to  weigh  from  1  to  2  pounds 
more  than  is  specified  by  the  Standard,  according  to  the  age, 
sex,  and  variety.  However,  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  that  are 
too  large  usually  lack  symmetry.  All  fowls  of  the  American 
breeds  and  varieties  seem  to  reach  the  most  desirable  form 
when  of  a  size  that  conforms  to  the  demands  of  the  Standard. 
When  larger  than  Standard  size,  they  are  frequently  of  bad 
proportions;  when  smaller,  they  approach  nearer  to  the  pro- 
portions of  Mediterranean  fowls  than  is  desirable. 

One  of  the  most  desirable  features  of  the  Plymouth  Rock  is 
its  elegance  for  exhibition;  the  color  and  markings  of  the 
Barred  Plymouth  R.ocks  are  especially  attractive  to  the  fan- 
cier. Narrow  bars  extend  across  the  feathers  from  the  top  of 
the  head  to  the  end  of  the  tail  and  broaden  as  they  reach  the 
extremities.     When  properly  barred  with  Hght  and  dark,  the 


242  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

females  are  even  more  attractive  than  the  males;  narrow  bar- 
ring is  preferred  in  both.  In  the  color  illustrations  of  Barred 
Plymouth  Rock  fowls,  one  pair  is  shown  in  which  the  color  is 
as  near  to  standard  requirements  as  can  be  illustrated  in  this 
way;  in  these,  both  the  males  and  the  females  have  the  same 
shade  of  color.  In  the  other  pair,  the  male  has  a  lighter  shade 
of  plumage  than  the  female.  The  light  shade  on  the  male 
illustrates  the  color  and  markings  that  can  be  used  to  the  best 
advantage  in  matings  for  the  production  of  exhibition  females 
of  this  variety.  The  hen  shown  in  the  same  illustration  is  of  a 
shade  natural  to  females  of  the  male  line  of  breeding ;  such  hens 
are  used  in  matings  for  producing  exhibition  cockerels. 


MATING 

7.  Mating  for  Shape. — In  selecting  Barred  Plymouth 
Rock  males  from  which  to  produce  exhibition  offspring,  those 
that  have  the  most  perfect  type  in  conformity  to  breed  descrip- 
tion should  always  be  chosen.  The  same  breed  characters  are 
essential  in  all  of  the  varieties.  Avoid,  as  far  as  possible, 
extended  proportions — beaks  that  are  long,  heads  that  are  long 
and  narrow,  and  long  necks  and  legs.  The  beauty  of  the 
Plj^mouth  Reck  depends  largely  on  having  the  head  of  medium 
size,  round,  and  broad,  and  of  proportions  that  fit  well  to  the 
neck,  which  is  of  medium  length,  properly  arched,  and  pro- 
fusely covered  with  long  hackle  feathers.  The  breast  must 
be  full,  prominent,  well  rounded  in  every  direction,  and  wide 
in  front.  From  the  throat  down  in  front  and  around  to  between 
the  thighs,  there  should  be  a  crescent  shape  that  widens  some- 
what as  it  approaches  the  thighs.  From  the  point  of  the 
breastbone  in  front  to  the  upper  line  of  the  abdomen,  the  fowl 
should  be  long,  weU  proportioned,  wide  between  the  thighs, 
and  prominent  in  the  abdomen.  The  upper  half  of  the  body 
must  be  broad,  full,  and  prominent;  the  back  should  be  built 
out  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  even  greater  width  than  the 
abdomen.  In  other  words,  the  upper  half  of  the  Plymouth 
Rock  male,  as  indicated  in  Fig.  1,  should  be  a  covering  for  the 
body.     This  top  formation  harmonizes  so  well  with  the  forma- 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  243 

tion  of  the  other  parts  of  the  body  as  to  add  to  the  beauty  of 
the  fowl,  and  in  no  way  detracts  from  its  utility  quaHties.  The 
proper  back  of  a  Plymouth  Rock  male  results  from  a  series  of 
curves  that  begin  at  the  base  of  the  comb  and  sweep  down  and 
back  with  a  gradual  rise  from  the  center  of  the  back  to  the 
highest  point  of  the  tail.  This  perfect  back  formation  may 
be  present  in  a  fowl  of  otherwise  bad  proportions,  but  when 
it  is  an  accompaniment  of  a  perfect  body,  the  fowl  has  the  for- 
mation of  the  best  type  of  Plymouth  Rock. 


To  be  perfect,  a  back  must  have  the  formation  described; 
it  should  widen  from  the  base  of  the  hackle  and  across  the 
shoulders  beneath  the  hackle;  as  it  approaches  the  base  of 
the  tan,  it  must  not  only  be  broad  but  must  cirrve  down  both 
sides  of  the  tail  to  form  the  round,  full  back  most  admired. 
Such  a  back  must  be  accompanied  by  the  beautifully  formed 
tail  that  belongs  exclusively  to  fowls  of  this  breed.  This  type 
of  body,"well  placed  on  shanks  and  feet  of  good  shape,  completes 
the  Plymouth  Rock  as  it  should  be  for  mating  with  hens  of  the 
proper  type  to  produce  Plymouth  Rock  shape  in  the  offspring. 
This  same  type  of  fowl  should  be  selected  in  every  variety  of 


244 


AMERICAN  FOWLS 


Plymouth  Rock  fowls;  from  such  only  can  the  best  offspring 
be  obtained. 

Prior  to  selecting  the  hens  for  mating  to  such  a  male,  the 
shape  of  the  back — the  greatest  difference  between  the  male 
and  the  female — should  be  considered.  The  back  of  the  male 
is  concave;  that  of  the  female  has  a  gentle  incline  to  the  tail. 
To  equalize  the  back  formation  in  the  offspring  is  a  difficult 
problem.  It  is  thought  to  be  necessary  to  select  females  that 
have  long  backs  and  rather  low  carriage  of  tails,  from  which  to 
secure  well-proportioned  backs  in  pullets.  Hens  with  tails  that 
are  carried  too  high  and  which  have  some  cushion  are  thought 
to  be  the  proper  kind  from  which  to  breed  cockerels  having 
proper  back  formation.  Females  selected  in  this  way  wiU 
answer  fairly  well  for  standard  matings,  but  they  will  not 
answer  for  double  matings.  In  selecting  females  for  pro- 
ducing the  best  type  of  Plymouth  Rock  fowls,  marked  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  beautiful  head,  neck,  breast,  and  under- 
body  formation.     In  aU  matings,  whether  standard  or  special, 

for  the  production  of 
males,  the  body  of  the 
female,  exclusive  of  the 
back  and  tail,  should 
have  the  fullest  and 
plumpest  formation  that 
it  is  possible  to  have  in 
a  Plymouth  Rock  female. 
This  is  shown  by  the  in- 
ner line  in  Fig.  2,  which 
indicates  a  back  more 
like  that  of  the  male  in 
Fig.  2  '  Fig.  1.     The  same  body 

formation  is  shown  in  the  color  illustration  of  the  dark  female 
used  for  producing  males. 

Females  from  which  to  produce  piillets  should  have  the  back 
as  shown  in  the  outer  lines  of  Fig.  2.  No  deviations  should  be 
made  from  the  body  proportions  as  shown,  and  the  only  depar- 
ture allowable  is  in  the  selection  of  females  to  improve  back  for- 
mation in  the  cockerels  produced  from  them. 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  245 

8.  standard  Mating. — ^A  standard  mating  is  one  in  which 
a  male  and  a  number  of  females  are  paired  together  in  a  manner 
that  will  produce  offspring  of  both  sexes  of  an  average  quality, 
some  of  which  will  be  fit  for  exhibition.  Such  a  mating  might 
be  called  a  chance  mating,  from  the  fact  that  Barred  Plymouth 
Rock  fowls  cannot  be  depended  on  to  do  even  fairly  well  when 
mated  without  reference  to  their  breeding. 

The  requirements  of  the  Standard  are  that  both  male  and 
female  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  for  exhibition  shall  have  the 
same  shade  of  plumage.  Nattire  has  willed  it  that  the  females 
produced  from  all  matings  of  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  fowls 
shall  have  a  darker  plumage  than  the  males.  No  matter  how 
dark  the  plumage  in  the  offspring  from  a  mating  may  be,  the 
shade  of  color  in  the  pullets  will  be  darker  than  the  shade  of 
color  in  the  plumage  of  the  cockerels.  No  matter  how  light 
the  plumage  of  a  cockerel  may  be  from  any  individual  hen,  the 
females  from  the  same  hen  mated  to  the  same  male  that  pro- 
duced the  cockerel  will  be  darker  than  the  cockerel.  This 
teaches  that  in  all  matings  for  color  in  Barred  Pljrmouth  Rocks, 
the  selection  of  breeders  must  be  made  in  accordance  with 
Nature's  law.  Pullets  of  exhibition  color  can  be  produced  only 
by  males  lighter  in  color  than  the  males  used  for  the  produc- 
tion of  cockerels. 

When  standard  matings  are  made,  males  that  are  lighter 
in  plumage  than  is  preferred  in  the  exhibition  pen  should  be 
mated  to  females  some  of  which  are  too  light  for  exhibition, 
some  of  which  conform  in  color  to  Standard  demands,  and  some 
of  which  are  too  dark  for  exhibition.  Fairly  good  pullets  may 
come  from  the  lightest  and  the  medium-colored  females  in  the 
matings.  If  cockerels  fit  for  exhibition  are  produced  from 
such  matings,  it  will  be  from  the  dark-colored  females.  Pro- 
miscuous matings  are  made  in  large  flocks  where  from  fifty  to 
one  hundred  females  of  light,  dark,  and  medium  color  are  per- 
mitted to  run  at  large  with  males  ranging  in  color  from  the  very 
light  pullet-bred  cockerels  to  the  most  perfect  shade  of  exhi- 
bition color.  When  bred  in  this  way,  some  fowls  of  jnedium 
exhibition  quality  will  be  produced.  This  manner  of  mating 
will  answer  best  for  producing  attractive  flocks  of  market  poul- 


246  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

try,  from  which  some  beautiful  fowls  may  be  selected  for  the 
show  pen. 

Strains  may  be  established  for  the  production  of  exhibition 
Barred  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  from  single  matings  by  selecting 
and  mating  females  that  are  as  dark  as  would  be  permissible 
in  the  show  room  to  males  that  are  a  shade  or  two  lighter  than 
is  admissible  for  exhibition  color;  and  by  selecting,  year  after 
year,  the  best  offspring  from  them — choosing  the  best  males 
as  they  come  naturally  from  such  matings  and  pairing  them 
with  females  of  the  best  color  that  have  been  secured  from  the 
same  matings.  As  soon  as  outside  blood  of  uncertain  quality 
is  introduced  into  such  a  flock,  the  value  of  the  strain  for  the 
production  of  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  for  exhibition  from 
single  matings  will  be  destroyed.  To  succeed  in  establishing 
a  strain  of  single-mating  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  fowls,  only 
fowls  having  clean,  clear  surface  color  and  distinct  markings 
without  metallic  luster  should  be  selected,  and  the  best  off- 
spring mated  in  the  same  manner  as  when  a  strain  of  any 
variety  is  to  be  established. 

9.  Double  Mating. — To  intensify  the  shade  of  color  in  the 
plumage  of  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  to  an  extent  that  will 
produce  them  of  a  shade  of  color  identical  in  both  males  and 
females,  double  mating  is  practiced.  For  the  production  of 
cockerels,  a  male  having  the  best  form  and  the  most  perfect 
color  for  exhibition  must  be  selected.  It  is  better  to  have  the 
plumage  of  a  lighter  shade  than  is  considered  best  in  the  show 
pen  than  to  have  a  metallic  luster  or  smut  in  the  plumage. 
The  barring  of  the  plumage  must  be  clean,  clear,  and  distinct; 
and  it  should  extend  the  entire  length  of  the  feathers,  inclu- 
ding the  fluff,  down  to  the  skin.  The  dark  and  light  bars  should 
be  as  nearly  parallel  as  it  is  natural  to  have  them;  they  should 
be  narrow,  of  equal  width,  and  free  from  bronze  or  brownish 
cast  along  the  lines  between  the  light  and  dark  bars.  Such 
males  should  be  mated  to  females  from  a  strain  that  has  been 
carefully  bred  for  the  production  of  cockerels.  Females  of  such 
a  strain  will  bu  much  too  dark  in  plumage  color  and  there  is 
likely  to  be  a  tendency  for  the  dark  and  the  Hght  colors  to  inter- 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  247 

mingle  in  the  offspring  to  the  extent  of  darkening  the  light- 
colored  bars.  The  darkest-colored  cockerels  will  come  from 
hens  that  are  so  strongly  bred  in  the  cockerel-producing  line 
as  to  have  not  only  a  smutty  appearance  to  their  plumage  but 
more  or  less  cushion  to  the  back  and  naturally  more  elevation 
to  the  tail.  The  tail  formation  of  the  hens  bred  for  producing 
exhibition  cockerels  is  likely  to  approach  the  form  indicated 
by  the  inner  lines  about  the  back  and  tail  of  the  female  shown 
in  Fig.  2.  This  result  can  be  obtained  only  after  years  of 
breeding  in  this  way. 

To  prevent  metallic  luster  from  coming  in  the  plumage  of 
the  offspring,  males  of  a  lighter  shade  of  color  shoiild  be  mated 
with  the  cockerel-bred  hens.  From  such  matings,  pullets  will 
be  produced  that  can  be  bred  into  the  strain  to  freshen  it.  To 
prevent  the  occurrence  of  too  much  cushion  in  the  back  of  the 
females,  new  blood  can  be  brought  in  through  the  use  of  hens 
of  exhibition  type  but  slightly  darker  in  plumage  than  exhibi- 
tion color.  From  these,  hens  may  be  produced  that  will  clear 
the  metallic  luster  from  the  plumage  of  future  offspring.  To 
establish  and  maintain  a  strain  for  breeding  cockerels,  fowls 
must  be  selected  from  a  strain  that  has  shown  its  ability  to  pro- 
duce exhibition  fowls  of  the  highest  quality.  Males  and  females 
from  such  a  strain  should  be  selected  and  be  bred  in  line 
according  to  the  system  shown  by  the  mating  chart  in  Standard- 
Bred  Poultry,  Part  2.  The  same  methods  must  be  applied  in 
forming  and  maintaining  a  strain  for  breeding  pullets.  When  a 
strain  of  this  kind  has  been  established,  no  deviation  from  the 
rule  of  mating  should  be  permitted.  Mature  hens  only  should 
be  used  to  produce  the  eggs  for  hatching.  In  some  instances, 
hens  in  their  fifth  and  sixth  year,  mated  to  cockerels  of  the 
same  strain,  have  produced  the  best  exhibition  males. 

The  hens  of  such  breeding  stock  should  be  kept  continually 
and  be  mated  to  cockerels  in  accordance  with  the  mating 
chart.  By  following  such  methods,  strains  have  been  estab- 
lished that  have  continued  for  many  years  to  produce  cockerels 
that  have  won  in  the  keenest  competition;  and  there  seems  to 
be  no  other  means  whereby  exhibition  cockerels  of  equal  qual- 
ity can  be  produced.     The  dark  hen  in  the  color  illustration 


248  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

has  very  nearly  the  color  of  plumage  required  in  females  for 
breeders  in  the  double  mating  system  for  producing  cockerels; 
and  the  males  that  have  the  shade  of  color  demanded  by  the 
Standard  are  ,the  kind  that  should  be  selected  to  mate  with 
them  for  best  results. 

To  produce  exhibition  females,  hens  that  are  perfect  in  form 
and  color  should  be  selected  from  a  strain  of  pullet-bred  Barred 
Plymouth  Rock  fowls  and  mated  to  males  from  the  same  strain. 
Such  males  will  be  many  shades  lighter  than  the  females;  the 
proper  shade  of  color  for  the  males  is  shown  in  the  color  illus- 
tration. Light-colored  males  should  be  as  perfect  in  barring 
as  the  exhibition  males,  the  only  difference  being  in  the  shade 
of  color  of  the  plumage.  Many  of  the  cockerels  so  produced 
are  almost  white  in  plumage,  each  feather  distinctly  barred 
with  a  very  light  shade  of  the  darker  color.  Cockerels  of  this 
kind  should  be  mated  with  exhibition  hens  and  a  strain  estab- 
lished from  them  by  careful  breeding  according  to  the  mating 
chart.  The  greatest  care  must  be  taken  not  only  in  the  selec- 
tion of  the  original  fowls  but  in  determining  their  line  of  breed- 
ing, so  that  no  mistakes  will  be  made  in  mating  their  offspring. 
Size,  shape,  and  color  can  be  estabHshed  in  this  way  and  main- 
tained for  years. 

A  different  type  of  tail  formation  will  be  found  in  males  of 
the  pullet-breeding  Hnes  from  that  desirable  in  cockerels.  If 
strict  attention  is  given  to  selecting  only  the  best  of  the  cock- 
erels produced  for  mating,  a  line  of  breeding  may  be  established 
that  will  continually  produce  offspring  of  good  shape,  and  at 
the  same  time  a  large  percentage  of  pullets  that  will  be  beauti- 
ful in  form  and  color.  The  most  beautiful  hens  and  pullets 
for  exhibition  are  produced  in  this  way.  There  will  be  no  need 
of  bringing  any  new  blood  into  such  a  strain,  except  that  occa- 
sionally it  will  be  desirable  to  secure  an  infusion  of  new  blood 
by  selecting  a  mature  hen  that  has  held  her  color  into  the  sec- 
ond and  third  year  and  mating  her  with  one  of  the  best  cock- 
erels in  the  strain.  To  keep  the  surface  color  of  the  female 
offspring  clean  and  clear  and  free  from  metallic  luster,  cock- 
erels of  a  lighter  shade  than  have  been  used  should  be  selected 
from  the  flock. 


If 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  249 

The  dangers  to  be  avoided  in  mating  for  both  cockerels  and 
ptdlets  is  the  appearance  of  metallic  luster  in  the  plumage, 
dark  spots  in  the  beak  and  shanks,  and  a  loss  of  color  in  the 
eyes.  The  darker  the  shade  of  plumage,  the  more  distinct 
win  be  the  dark  spots  in  the  beak  and  shanks;  the  more 
pronounced  the  barring  in  under  fluff,  the  more  likely  dark 
spots  are  to  appear  in  the  shanks  and  metallic  luster  to  come 
in  the  plumage.  For  beauty  of  plumage  and  attractiveness 
in  the  show  pen,  nothing  equals  the  clean-cut  bars  with- 
out a  trace  of  metallic  luster.  Whenever  a  cockerel  has  been 
produced  that  has  the  light  shade  of  surface  color  and  distinct 
barring  beneath,  the  highest  honors  are  awarded  to  it.  The 
same  is  true  of  hens  and  pullets.  The  difficulty  in  the  way  of 
this  is  the  necessity  of  using  dark-plumaged  fowls  to  produce 
the  barring  to  the  skin.  Yellow  shanks  can  be  maintained  by 
selecting  fowls  for  breeding  that  have  the  most  perfect  color 
in  their  shanks  and  skin.  No  fowl  that  has  a  long  or  thin  neck 
should  be  used  to  produce  exhibition  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks. 
Males  should  have  very  heavy  shanks  of  medium  length,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  fowl.  Eyes  other  than  bright  red  should 
be  avoided  in  both  males  and  females.  Pearl  eyes  will  soon 
show  an  increase  if  any  of  the  fowls  used  for  breeding  have 
them.  Breeding  fowls  should  always  have  perfect  combs, 
heads,  and  head  points. 

BUFF  PLYMOUTH  ROCK 
10.  Origin. — The  Buff  Plymouth.  Rock  fowls  have  none 
of  the  original  Plymouth  Rock  blood  except  what  came  to  them 
through  cross-breeding  with  Rhode  Island  Red  fowls.  There 
were  originally  two  distinct  strains — the  Buflfinton  and  the 
Wilson.  The  Buffinton  strain  was  originated  by  R.  G.  Buf- 
finton,  of  Massachusetts,  who  bred  from  Rhode  Island  Red 
fowls  of  Plymouth  Rock  shape.  Fowls  having  buff  or  reddish- 
buff  color  were  selected  and  the  best  offspring  from  them 
chosen  until  fairly  good  Buff  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  were  pro- 
duced. The  Wilson  strain  was  created  by  J.  D.  Wilson,  of 
New  York,  from  crossing  a  Biiff  Cochin  and  a  Light  Brahma. 
The  best  offspring  from  this  cross  were  selected  and  mated. 


250  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

Other  strains  have  come  from  crossing  the  best  offspring 
from  both  strains  with  White  Plymouth  Rock  females  that 
had  considerable  cream  or  yellow  in  their  plumage.  A  clean, 
clear  surface  color  without  black  in  the  wings  and  tails  was 
secured  in  this  way.  The  defects  arising  in  the  offspring  from 
this  crossing  were  light  surface  color  and  almost  white  under 
plumage;  the  surface  color,  in  some  instances,  was  so  thinly 
laid  on  the  web  of  the  feather  as  to  give  a  mealy  appearance. 
The  present  type  of  Buff  Plymouth  Rock  has  been  produced 
by  selecting  the  best  offspring  of  all  these  crosses. 

11.  Development. — Immediately  following  the  advent  of 
Buff  Plymouth  Rock  fow^s,  a  determined  effort  was  made  to 
develop  them  into  fowls  of  Plymouth  Rock  shape  and  of  per- 
fect plumage  color.  In  an  endeavor  to  establish  a  color  that 
would  meet  the  approval  of  all,  every  shade  of  yellow  from 
lemon  to  brown  was  considered.  The  poultrymen  who  bred 
Buff  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  selected  the  lighter  shade  of  color, 
and  this  resulted  in  benefit  to  the  variety,  for  when  the  lighter 
shade  of  buff  was  established,  it  was  less  difficult  to  intensify 
this  in  offspring,  through  careful  selection  and  breeding,  than 
it  would  have  been  to  breed  out  the  brownish-red  or  cinnamon 
shade  of  buff  found  on  some  of  the  fowls.  The  Buff  Plymouth 
Rock  has  been  developed  into  a  fowl  of  the  proper  size  and 
type  as  described  for  Plymouth  Rock  fowls,  and  also  into  a 
fowl  having  an  attractive  shade  of  golden-buff  plumage. 

12.  History. — Part  of  the  history  of  the  Buff  Plymouth 
Rock  fowls  is  told  in  their  origin  and  development.  Following 
the  admission  of  this  variety  to  the  Standard  of  1894,  the  fowls 
became  popular.  To  improve  their  color,  inbreeding  was  fol- 
lowed to  such  an  extent  as  to  lessen  their  size  and  their  popu- 
larity as  utility  poultry.  Later,  surprises  came  in  the  way 
of  Buff  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  of  better  size,  shape,  and 
color.  This  seenied  to  intensify  the  desire  to  have  them  better, 
and  by  careful  breeding  they  have  been  made  into  fowls  that 
have  both  good  size  and  color,  and  although  they  are  not  so 
popular  as  the  Barred  or  the  White  Plymouth  Rock  fowls,  they 
have  gained  in  popularity  as  their  quahty  has  improved. 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  251 

13.  Description. — The  Biiff  Plymouth  Rock  should  be 
perfect  in  type  and  equal  in  size  to  fowls  of  the  other  varieties. 
They  should  have  plumage  of  a  rich,  golden  buff  throughout, 
with  no  foreign  color ;  the  under  plumage  should  be  of  a  lighter 
shade  than  the  surface  pliunage.  Biiff  is  so  thoroughly 
described  in  the  discussion  of  Buff  Cochin  fowls  that  no  lengthy 
description  of  color  will  be  given  here;  all  that  is  necessary  is 
to  say  that  the  fowls  must  be  of  the  best  form  and  color.  The 
beak,  shanks,  and  toes  should  be  golden  yellow;  the  eyes,  red. 

14.  Mating. — In  selecting  Buff  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  for 
mating,  those  of  the  best  Plymouth  Rock  form,  as  described 
for  the  barred  variety,  should  be  chosen.  They  must  be  per- 
fect in  breed  characters,  and  special  attention  must  be  given 
to  their  head  points  and  color.  The  surface  plumage  should 
be  of  a  golden-buff  color;  the  under  plumage,  all  the  way  to 
the  skin,  should  be  a  shade  lighter;  and  the  entire  plimiage 
must  be  without  impurity  or  blemish.  In  mating  Buff  Plym- 
outh Rocks  for  color,  the  methods  described  for  the  mating 
of  Buff  Cochins  should  be  followed,  and  in  estabUshing  a 
strain,  the  system  shown  by  the  mating  chart  in  Standard-Bred 
Poultry,  Part  2,  should  be  followed.  The  size  of  Buff  Plymouth 
Rocks  can  best  be  preserved  by  using  in  the  breeding  pen  only 
large  hens. 

COLUMBIAN  PLYMOUTH  ROCK 

15.  Origin. — The  Columbian  Plymouth  Rock  fowls 
have  come  from  a  number  of  som-ces.  A  chance-bred  male  of 
Plymouth  Rock  shape  and  of  Light  Brahma  color  was  mated 
with  both  Barred  and  White  Plymouth  Rock  females,  and  these 
matings  produced  a  strain  of  Coltmibian  Plymouth  Rock 
fowls.  Another  strain  was  produced  from  a  direct  cross  of 
Light  Brahma  males  with  White  Plymouth  Rock  females. 
Yet  another  strain  was  originated  by  mating  Light  Brahma 
males  with  White  Plymouth  Rock  females  and  recrossing  the 
offspring  with  the  males  from  the  other  two  strains  and  with 
single-comb  offspring  that  came  from  Columbian  Wyandotte 
fowls. 


252  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

16.  Development. — The  Columbian  Plymouth  Rock  was 
developed  by  selecting  the  best  fowls  of  tjieir  kind  and  mating 
them,  in  many  instances  without  regard  to  their  origin.  These 
matings  produced  better  shape  in  the  offspring,  but  with  it 
has  come  increased  difficulty  in  the  production  of  color  and 
markings.  This  is  the  natural  result  of  too  quickly  intermin- 
gling so  many  different  strains  and  varieties  of  fowls. 

17.  History. — The  Colimibian  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  made 
their  first  appearance  as  sports  from  Colimibian  Wyandotte 
fowls.  Following  this,  several  strains  of  Columbian  Plymouth 
Rock  fowls  were  made,  and  when  sufficient  interest  had  been 
aroused  in  them  to  attract  attention,  the  American  Columbian 
Plymouth  Rock  Club  was  organized;  a  standard  was  adopted, 
and  application  was  made  to  the  American  Poultry  Association 
for  the  recognition  of  this  variety.  It  was  admitted  to  the 
American  Standard  at  the  meeting  held  in  St.  Louis,  in  August, 
1910. 

18.  Description. — The  standard  description  adopted  by 
the  American  Columbian  Plymouth  Rock  Club  states  that 
fowls  of  this  variety  shall  have  the  same  shape  as  those  of  the 
other  varieties  of  Plymouth  Rock;  that  in  color  and  markings 
they  shall  conform  to  Light  Brahmas;  and  that  they  shall  be 
disqualified  for  any  feathers  on  shanks,  feet,  or  toes,  or  the 
unmistakable  indication  of  feathers  having  been  removed  from 
these  parts.  The  shanks  and  feet  must  be  yellow  or  reddish 
yellow;  and  the  face,  comb,  wattles,  ear  lobes,  and  eyes  must 
be  red.  In  weight  and  breed  characters,  fowls  of  this  variety 
shall  conform  to  those  of  the  white  variety. 

1 9 .  Mating .  —In  mating  Columbian  Plymouth  Rock  fowls, 
those  having  the  shape  and  color  described  in  the  Standard 
must  be  selected.  The  line  of  division  between  the  white  and 
the  black  in  the  surface  plumage  should  be  well  defined;  the 
color  should  not  overlap  and  mix.  The  hackle  feathers  of  the 
males  should  be  white,  with  a  distinct  black  stripe  following 
the  shape  of  the  feather  and  extending  from  near  the  point  to 
near  the  root ;  the  less  break  there  is  in  the  color  of  the  hackle 
feathers  of  a  male,  the  greater  will  be  the  tendency  to  improve 


§5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  253 

color  in  the  offspring.  The  proper  proportion  of  black  and 
white  in  primary  and  secondary  feathers  of  the  wings  of  breeders 
is  of  importance.  The  main  tail  feathers  should  be  black;  and 
surrounding  them  are  black  sickles  and  coverts.  The  coverts 
next  to  the  tail  plumage  should  be  marked  with  white,  as 
described  for  Brahmas.  The  whiter  the  plumage  of  the  back, 
the  more  likely  the  fowl  will  be  to  produce  well-marked  off- 
spring. The  under  plumage  should  be  of  a  bluish-white  or 
slate  color. 

The  hackle  feathers  of  the  female  should  be  of  good  length; 
the  web  should  be  white,  with  a  black  stripe  in  the  center. 
The  nearer  the  markings  of  the  neck  hackle  approach  the  mark- 
ings of  the  Light  Brahma,  the  more  valuable  the  fowl  will  be 
for  breeding.  For  producing  good  color  in  the  offspring,  the 
surface  plumage  of  breeding  fowls  should  be  as  white  as  pos- 
sible, and  the  under  plumage  should  be  bluish  white.  Fowls 
that  have  almost  black  imder  plumage  will  intensify  the  black 
markings  in  the  offspring  and  are  likely  to  produce  black  in 
the  web  of  the  back  plumage.  The  primary  feathers  of  the 
wings  should  be  as  black  as  it  is  possible  to  have  them ;  the  main 
tail  feathers  should  be  black  and  the  tail  coverts  edged  with 
white.  Females  of  this  kind  are  likely  to  increase  the  amount 
of  black  in  the  plumage  of  the  offspring.  It  is  better  to  increase 
the  black  gradually  than  to  hasten  it.  A  few  of  the  females  hav- 
ing dark  under  plumage  may  be  mated  with  males  that  are  fairly 
free  from  smut  or  dark  shade  in  under  plimiage.  The  greatest 
improvement  will  come  from  strains  established  by  selecting 
the  best  and  breeding  them  in  a  careful  manner,  and  thus  estab- 
lishing a  strain  from  fowls  that  are  Plymouth  Rock  in  shape 
and  which  have  proper  color  and  markings  as  demanded  for 
the  exhibition  Light  Brahma. 

A  feature  of  marked  importance  in  breeding  Columbian 
Plymouth  Rock  fowls  is  to  select  fowls  that  are  strongly 
Plymouth  Rock  in  form  and  blood  Hnes.  The  less  Wyandotte 
blood  in  them,  the  more  improvement  will  be  made.  Along 
with  the  careful  selection  of  the  breeding  stock,  records  should 
be  kept  of  the  male  and  female  lines.  The  eggs  from  each  hen 
should  be  marked  and  the  offspring  separated  and  marked  so 


254  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

as  to  trace  them  to  the  mother  hen  as  well  as  to  the  sire.  More 
information  about  mating  for  color  in  fowls  of  the  color  and 
markings  of  the  Columbian  Plymouth  Rock  will  be  found  in 
the  discussion  on  mating  for  color  in  Light  Brahma  fowls. 


PARTRIDGE  PLYMOUTH  ROCK 

20.  Origin  and  Development. — The  first  Partridge 
Plymoutli  Rock  fowls  that  can  be  traced  in  any  nimibers 
originated  at  Elmwood  Farm,  Weston,  New  Jersey.  These 
came  as  offspring  from  Partridge  Wyandottes  of  the  George  H. 
Brackenbruy  strain.  These  were  separated  and  bred  together, 
and  males  and  females  from  the  flock  were  distributed. 

Another  strain  of  Partridge  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  was  estab- 
lished at  North  Manchester,  Indiana.  This  strain  originated 
from  a  cross  made  with  Cornish,  or  Indian,  Game  males  and 
Partridge  Cochin  females ;  the  offspring  of  this  cross  were  mated 
with  Golden  Laced  Wyandotte  fowls,  and  the  best  offspring 
from  the  final  cross  were  mated  and  remated  until  the  fowls 
possessed  Plymouth  Rock  characters,  Partridge  Cochin  color, 
and  yellow  shanks  and  feet.  Other  strains  were  made  at  the 
Hill  Crest  Farms,  of  Oxford,  Pennsylvania,  and  at  the  Rock 
Hill  Poiiltry  Farm,  Ossining,  New  York.  These  were  made 
from  a  selection  of  the  best  of  the  other  strains.  The  best 
Partridge  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  have  come  from  intermingling 
the  choicest  of  all  offspring  that  have  been  produced  from  the 
several  sources  and  mating  them  as  Partridge  Cochin  fowls 
are  mated  for  producing  color. 

21.  History. — The  Partridge  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  were 
first  developed  from  single-comb  offspring  of  Partridge  Wyan- 
dotte fowls.  Other  crosses  were  made  in  an  effort  to  obtain 
better  plumage  color  and  golden-yellow  shanks  and  feet.  The 
main  defects  in  fowls  of  this  variety  have  been  dark  colored 
shanks  and  toes,  and  imperfect  breed  characters. 

22.  Description. — The  Partridge  Plymouth  Rock  fowls 
must  have  the  same  breed  characters  as  those  of  the  other 
varieties  of  PLvmouth  Rocks.     They  should  have  even  better 


■xi^ 


-.7 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  255 

form  than  those  of  the  barred  variety.  Their  beaks,  shanks, 
and  feet  should  be  golden  yellow ;  dark  shading  is  objectionable. 
The  plumage  color  and  markings  should  be  the  same  as  described 
for  Partridge  Cochin  fowls.  The  weights  of  fowls  of  this  variety 
are  the  same  as  for  those  of  the  other  varieties  of  the  same 
breed. 

23.  Mating. — The  mating  of  Partridge  Plymouth  Rock 
fowls  for  shape  is  governed  by  the  same  rules  that  apply  in  the 
case  of  those  of  the  other  varieties.  Only  those  of  true  Plymouth 
Rock  type  should  be  admitted  to  the  breeding  pen.  In  addi- 
tion to  perfect  breed  characters,  all  the  fowls  used  in  the 
matings  must  have  plumage  color  and  markings  as  perfect  as 
are  demanded  for  Partridge  Cochin  fowls.  Strains  of  Part- 
ridge Plymouth  Rock  fowls  must  be  built  up  from  the  best 
fowls  that  can  be  obtained ;  such  fowls  must  be  line  bred  into  a 
strain  that  can  be  depended  on  to  reproduce  both  shape  and 
color  to  a  marked  degree.  To  accomplish  this,  the  rules  for 
forming  a  strain  must  be  followed,  and  matings  rnust  be  made 
in  accordance  with  the  mating  chart.  A  more  detailed  account 
of  color  mating  that  may  be  applied  to  fowls  of  this  variety 
will  be  found  in  the  description  of  the  mating  of  Partridge 
Cochins  for  color. 

SILVER -PENCILED  PLYMOUTH  ROCK 

24.  Origin. — The  first  Silver  Penciled  Plymouth  Rock 

fowls  came  as  single-comb  offspring  from  Silver  Penciled 
Wyandotte  fowls.  Other  strains  were  made  by  mating  Silver- 
Gray  Dorking  fowls  with  Dark  Brahma  fowls,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  Mottled  Javas  and  single-comb  offspring  from  the 
Penciled  Wyandottes.  The  best  offspring  from  these  crosses 
were  mated,  remated,  selected,  and  bred  in  line  imtil  the  present 
type  was  produced. 

25.  History  and  Development. — The  first  Silver  Pen- 
ciled Plymouth  Rock  fowls  of  which  there  is  a  record  made  their 
appearance  as  single-comb  offspring  from  Silver  Penciled 
Wyandotte  fowls.  They  appeared  about  the  same  time  at 
Elmwood  Farm,  New  Jersey,  and  at  the  Valley  Farm,  Ithaca, 


256  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

New  York.  These  single-comb  offspring  were  gathered  and 
colonized  on  a  farm  adjoining  Elm  wood,  where  they  were 
bred  for  2  years;  later,  the  flock  was  transferred  to  Owego, 
New  York,  and  from  there  to  Ossining,  New  York.  Other 
strains  were  originated  in  Connecticut  and  Pennsylvania. 
This  variety  was  admitted  to  the  Standard  of  1910. 

26.  Description. — Silver  Penciled  Plymouth  Rock  fowls 
must  be  true  to  breed  characters  and  have  the  variety  color 
of  Dark  Brahma  fowls.  Shanks  and  feet  should  be  yellow, 
with  no  feathering  on  them;  some  of  them  show  a  shading  on 
the  upper  side  of  the  toes.  Faults  in  this  variety  are  a  metallic 
siirface  color  in  the  males,  dark  shanks  and  toes  in  the  females, 
and  Dorking  type  in  both. 

27.  Mating. — In  mating  Silver  Penciled  Plymouth  Rock 
fowls  for  the  production  of  males  with  a  clean,  clear,  silvery- 
white  top  color,  and  females  with  a  beautiful,  silvery  surface 
color  throughout,  males  with  glossy  black  striping  in  the  neck 
and  saddle  should  be  used;  the  stripe  in  each  of  these  feathers 
should  extend  from  near  the  point  of  the  feather  well  up  into 
the  under  fiiiff.  The  penciling  of  the  plumage  of  the  females 
selected  for  breeders  must  be  dark  colored,  and  follow  the 
shape  of  the  feather.  The  best  surface  color  in  females  will 
be  secured  by  breeding  from  fowls  that  have  a  light  shade  in 
the  iinder  plumage.  The  color  of  the  under  plumage  in  the 
Silver  Penciled  Plymouth  Rock,  according  to  the  Standard, 
should  be  dark  slate  in  both  males  and  females.  This  is  an 
advantage  to.  the  fancier,  because  it  enables  him  to  use  his 
exhibition  fowls  to  intensify  the  black  markings  in  the  neck 
of  both  sexes  and  in  the  saddle  of  the  males  of  later  genera- 
tions. To  produce  the  best  color  and  markings  in  both  male 
and  female  offspring,  the  under  plumage  of  the  male  should 
be  of  a  slaty  shade,  that  of  some  of  the  females  should  be  almost 
white,  and  that  of  the  other  females  should  be  dark  slate. 
From  the  females  having  light  under  plumage,  the  best  pul- 
lets will  be  produced;  and  from  the  females  having  dark  under 
plumage  the  best  cockerels  will  come.  Males  having  dark 
under  plumage  can  be  mated  with  females  having  light  under 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  257 

plumage.  More  detailed  information  on  the  subject  of  mating 
fowls  of  this  kind  of  plumage  is  given  in  the  discussion  of  the 
mating  of  Dark  Brahma  fowls. 


WHITE  PLYMOUTH  ROCK 

28.  Origin.— The  White  Plymoutli  Rock  fowls  origi- 
nated from  white  sports  from  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  fowls. 
Of  the  many  varieties  of  standard,  and  non-standard  Plymouth 
Rock  fowls,  only  the  white  and  the  black  varieties  have 
descended  directly  from  the  original  Plymouth  Rock  fowls. 

29.  Development. — The  White  Pl3anouth  Rock  fowls 
have  been  developed  from  the  white  sports  that  originated  in  the 
yards  of  those  who  bred  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rock.  Consid- 
erable annoyance  was  experienced  in  their  development,  because 
of  the  fact  that  when  the  white  sports  of  one  strain  were  crossed 
with  the  white  sports  of  another  strain,  dark  or  smutty  plumage 
was  likely  to  appear  in  the  offspring.  In  some  instances,  barred 
feathers  would  appear;  but  in  spite  of  these  diflEiculties,  by  care- 
ful selection  and  mating,  one  of  the  best  of  all  the  American 
varieties  of  fowls  has  been  developed. 

30.  History. — The  White  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  were  the 
first  to  come  direct  from  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rock.  Prior 
to  the  Indianapolis  meeting  of  the  American  Poultry  Associa- 
tion, which  occurred  in  January,  1888,  there  was  a  great  deal 
of  controversy  over  White  Plymouth  Rock,  White  Java,  and 
White  Wyandotte  fowls.  At  that  meeting  these  three  vari- 
eties were  admitted  to  the  American  Standard.  The  White 
Java  and  the  White  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  were  so  nearly  alike 
that,  as  a  result  of  the  siirvival  of  the  fittest,  the  White  Java 
has  become  almost  obsolete  and  the  White  Pljmiouth  Rock  has 
become  one  of  the  most  popular  of  all  white-plumaged  fowls. 

31.  Description. — The  White  Pl3rmouth  Rock  should 
have  better  form  than  a  fowl  of  any  other  variety  of  this  breed. 
There  is  a  demand  for  better  form  in  these  fowls  than  is  accept- 
able in,  those  of  the  barred  variety,  and  although  this  may  not 
be  a  correct  rule  to  follow  in  all  cases,  it  is  the  present  ruling 


258  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

of  the  show  room.  In  addition  to  having  perfect  breed  char- 
acters, they  must  be  pure  white,  with  no  foreign  color  in  the 
plimiage,  not  even  a  trace  of  yellow  or  cream.  They  must 
have  yellow  shanks,  beak,  and  skin,  and  bright,  red  eyes.  Any 
deviation  from  these  requirements  will  bar  them  from  consid- 
eration in  the  show  room,  and  there  is  no  reasonable  excuse 
for  the  fowls  not  having  these  qualities. 

32.  Mating. — In  mating  White  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  for 
shape,  those  that  are  as  near  as  possible  to  perfection  in 
Plymouth  Rock  form  should  be  selected.  To  breed  to  per- 
fection in  color,  the  fowls  must  have  plumage  that  is  pure 
white  to  the  skin,  and  the  quill  of  the  feathers  must  also  be 
white.  Whenever  there  is  the  slightest  appearance  of  yellow 
in  the  web,  down,  or  quill  of  the  feathers  of  the  parents,  more 
of  this  is  likely  to  appear  in  the  plumage  of  the  offspring. 
Although  it  is  difficult  to  produce  offspring  with  pure  white 
plumage  from  fowls  that  have  yellow  shanks  and  skin,  it  can 
be  accomplished  by  mating  only  such  males  and  females  as 
have  pure  white  plumage.  It  is  not  infrequent  that  fowls 
having  pure  white  plumage  will  have  light-colored  shanks 
and  pale-colored  beaks  and  eyes.  All  of  these  should  be 
avoided.  If  all  the  breeding  fowls  have  the  proper  color  in 
beak,  eyes,  skin,  shanks,  and  plumage,  the  best  offspring 
will  be  produced.  When  fowls  of  this  kind  cannot  be  pro- 
cured, the  whitest  fowls  that  can  be  obtained  should  be 
mated  year  after  year;  in  this  way,  size,  shape,  and  color  may 
be  improved. 

Yellow  com,  flaxseed,  cottonseed,  or  iron  of  any  kind  should 
not  be  fed  to  white-plumaged  fowls  that  are  intended  for  exhi- 
bition. The  color  of  the  shanks  wiU  be  intensified  if  the  fowls 
have  free  range  over  grass  plots,  pasture  lands,  or  clover  fields. 

In  mating  White  Plymouth  Rock  fowls,  or  the  white  fowls 
of  any  breed,  for  the  production  of  pure  white-plumaged 
offspring,  the  following  rules  should  be  observed : 

1.  Fowls  that  have  foreign  color  of  any  kind  in  the  web, 
under  plumage,  or  shaft  of  the  feathers  should  not  be  used  as 
breeding  stock. 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  259 

2.  Males  that  show  the  least  trace  of  yellow  on  surface, 
web,  under  plumage,  or  shaft  of  feathers  cannot  be  used  for 
producing  offspring  with  pure  white  plumage. 

3.  Males  that  have  pure  white  plumage,  yellow  beaks, 
shanks,  and  skin,  and  bright  red  eyes,  can  be  mated  with  hens 
that  have  pure  white  plumage,  light-colored  beaks,  eyes,  and 
shanks. 

4.  Hens  that  have  the  slightest  creamy  tint  in  their  plumage 
are  likely  to  produce  offspring  in  which  the  yellow  tint  will  be 
intensified.  Pullets  are  more  likely  to  show  creaminess  in 
plumage  than  yearling  and  2-year-old  hens ;  and,  if  used  in  the 
breeding  pen,  they  are  likely  to  produce  offspring  that  will 
show  more  or  less  of  creaminess,  even  though  mated  with  males 
that  are  pure  white  in  plumage. 

5.  Only  females  that  are  pure  white  in  plimiage  should  be 
used  for  producing  exhibition  offspring.  The  less  color  they 
have  in  beak,  shanks,  and  skin,  the  more  likely  they  will  be  to 
produce  offspring  that  will  have  pure  white  plumage.  Such 
females,  hens  preferred  to  pullets,  mated  with  cockerels  that 
have  pure  white  plimiage,  yellow  beaks,  shanks,  and  skin,  and 
bright  red  eyes,  should,  if  line  bred,  produce  offspring  that  will 
be  pure  white  in  plumage.  If  strict  care  has  been  taken  in 
selecting  the  breeding  stock  and  the  rules  for  mating  in  line 
have  been  followed,  most  of  the  offspring  produced  will  be 
of  true  Plymouth  Rock  shape  and  have  pure  white  plumage. 


NON-STANDARD    VARIETIES    OF    PLYMOUTH    ROCK 


VAREETIES 

33.  From  time  to  time,  several  non-standard  varieties  of 
the  Plymouth  Rock  family  have  been  produced.  These  are 
the  Black,  the  Buff  Barred,  the  Pea-Comb,  and  the  Rose- 
Comb  Plymouth  Rock.  One  of  the  varieties,  the  pea-comb,  was 
admitted  to  the  Standard  at  one  time,  but  was  later  dropped. 
The  Black  Plymouth  Rock  has  been  accepted  in  England  as 
a  standard  variety,  but  as  it  has  not  been  so  favored  in  America, 
it  has  been  classed  with  the  others  as  a  non-standard  variety. 


260  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 


BLACK    PLYMOUTH    KOCK 

34.  The  Black  Plynioutli  Rock  fowls  were  first  men- 
tioned as  a  variety  early  in  the  decade  between  1880  and  1890, 
when  there  was  a  contention  over  admitting  any  but  the 
Barred  Plymouth  Rock  to  the  American  Standard.  The  Black 
PHnnouth  Rock  was  confused  with  the  Black  Java,  and  it  was 
claimed  by  some  that  both  were  sports  from  the  Barred 
Plymouth  Rock.  Later,  the  fanciers  of  England  selected  the 
best  of  the  Black  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  and  established  a  vari- 
ety; the  fowls  of  this  variety  have  perfect  breed  characters  and 
black  plumage  with  a  lustrous,  beetle-green  sheen.  They  are, 
however,  rarely  seen  in  America. 


BUFF  BARBED  PLYMOUTH  ROCK 

35.  The  Buff  Barred  Plymoutli  Rock  fowls  have  existed 
in  several  localities,  and  a  few  of  them  have  been  brought  into 
public  notice;  but  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  have  them 
admitted  to  the  American  Standard.  They  have  about  the 
same  shades  of  color  in  plumage  as  the  new  variety  of  Cornish, 
or  Indian,  Game  fowls  known  as  the  White-Laced  Red  Cornish. 
In  the  Buff-Laced  Pohsh,  this  color  is  described  as  rich  buif 
with  white  lacing.  Buff  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  should 
be  Plymouth  Rock  in  shape  and  have  golden-buff  body  plumage 
barred  with  grayish  white;  some,  however,  have  pale  buff 
plumage  barred  with  gra5dsh  white.  The  colors  are  not  well 
established  in  the  flights  and  secondaries,  and  only  a  begin- 
ning has  been  made  in  developing  regularity  of  color  in  body 
plumage. 

PEA-COMB    PLYMOUTH    ROCK 

36.  It  is  thought  that  the  Pea- Comb  Plymouth  Rock 

fowls  came  as  sports  from  the  single-comb  variety.  It  has  been 
admitted  that  Dark  Brahma  blood  was  infused  into  the  Drake 
strain  of  Plymouth  Rock  fowls;  this  accounts  for  the  appear- 
ance of  the  pea  comb  in  this  variety,  which  has  Pl5anouth  Rock 
form  and  color.     Fowls  of  this  variety  were  not  well  received, 


§5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  261 

although  they  were  admitted  to  the  Standard  of  1888;  they 
were  dropped  10  years  later,  and  but  little  mention  has  been 
made  of  them  since  that  time.  Their  origin  has  been  accredited 
to  H.  S.  Babcock,  of  Rhode  Island,  and  although  he  may  not 
have  originated  them,  he  did  improve  and  introduce  them  to 
public  notice. 

ROSE-COMB    PLYMOUTH    ROCK 

37.  At  the  meeting  of  the  American  Poultry  Association, 
at  St.  Louis,  in  1910,  notice  was  received  of  a  new  variety  of 
fowls  called  Rose-Comb  Plyraoutli  Rock.  The  originator 
claimed  that  they  were  a  new  variety  and  worthy  of  admission 
to  the  Standard.  After  a  careful  examination  by  expert  poul- 
tr3rmen,  it  was  decided  not  to  consider  the  application,  because 
they  differed  but  slightly  from  the  American  Dominique  fowls, 
and  it  was  thought  inadvisable  to  consider  them  as  a  distinct 
breed  or  variety.  The  Rose-Comb  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  have 
rose  combs,  and  are  of  the  shape  and  color  described  for  the 
Dominiques,  but  they  are  not  equal  to  the  latter;  their  heads 
and  combs  are  not  of  such  marked  distinction,  nor  do  they  have 
the  long,  sweeping  tail  so  attractive  in  the  Dominique  males. 


262  AMERICAN  FOWLS 


WYANDOTTE 


ORIGIN 


38.  The  Wyandotte  fowls  were  originated  by  John  P.  Ray, 
of  Hemlock,  New  York,  from  crossing  Sebright  with  black  and 
yellow  Chittagong  fowls.  The  Sebright  fowls  were  descendants 
from  two  English  fowls,  the  Yorkshire  Pheasant  and  Lanca- 
shire Mooney  fowls.  The  Yorkshire  Pheasants  had  long 
sickles  in  their  tails;  the  Mooney  males  had  no  sickles,  but 
were  hen-tailed  like  the  Sebright  Bantam  males  of  the  present. 
The  Mooney  fowls  had  large,  double  combs  and  red  ear  lobes; 
the  Yorkshire  Pheasants  had  better  combs  and  some  white  in 
the  ear  lobes.  The  Chittagongs  were  Asiatic  fowls  with  some 
feathers  on  their  shanks  and  toes. 

About  1870,  Mr.  Whittaker,  of  Michigan,  bred  some  fowls 
having  silvery  hackles,  plump  formation,  and  yellow  shanks, 
with  no  feathers  on  them.  These  two  strains  were  the  begin- 
ning from  which  the  modem  Wyandotte  fowls  were  made. 
From  1877  to  1883,  many  additional  crosses  were  made — Ham- 
burg and  Dark  Brahma  crosses  being  among  the  most  impor- 
tant. The  breed  developed  from  these  original  strains  was 
admitted  to  the  American  standard  as  the  Wyandotte. 


SILVER  LACED  WYANDOTTE 

39.  Origin. — The  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte  was  origi- 
nated by  selecting  the  best  fowls  of  the  original  strains  that 
had  a  silvery-white  color  in  their  plumage  and  breeding  them 
for  the  production  of  offspring  having  the  desired  variety  color 
and  of  the  proper  type. 

40.  Development. — The  Wyandotte  form  was  originally 
more  extended  than  at  the  present.     The  Standard  at  first 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  263 

described  the  plumage  as  having  white  centers,  with  black 
lacing  about  the  edges,  but  most  of  the  fowls  had  black  in  the 
web  of  the  feather  of  the  back  plumage,  with  small  white  stripes 
or  centers.  Gradually  the  centers  were  widened  until  they 
resembled  Sebright  Bantam  markings,  the  feathers  being  about 
half  white  and  half  black,  a  few  having  more  white,  with  the 
edges  of  the  feathers  black.  Difficulty  was  experienced  in 
the  production  of  males  having  top  plumage  that  was  not  over- 
cast with  metallic  black.  Years  of  scientific  mating  were  neces- 
sary for  the  development  of  the  Wyandotte  fowls. 

41.  History.— When  admitted  to  the  Standard  of  1883, 
these  fowls  were  named  Wyandotte ;  at  the  meeting  of  the  Amer- 
ican Poultry  Association,  at  Indianapolis,  in  January,  1888, 
the  name  was  changed  to  Silver  Wyandotte.  They  are  now 
commonly  known  as  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte  fowls.  There 
has  always  been  a  desire  for  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte  fowls  hav- 
ing feathers  with  large  white  centers,  laced  with  black.  Such 
markings  were  not  produced  on  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte  fowls 
until  they  had  been  adopted  by  the  English  fanciers,  who  bred 
them  for  color  and  markings.  Since  the  first  Wyandotte  fowls 
were  rettuned  to  America  from  England,  poultrymen  through- 
out the  United  States  and  Canada  have  produced  them  of  bet- 
ter form  and  color  than  have  been  produced  in  England.  In 
Australia,  they  have  been  bred  for  egg  production  and  have 
won  in  the  yearly  egg-laying  contests  held  there,  in  which  as 
many  as  100  pens  have  competed. 

42.  Description. — The  Wyandotte  might  be  likened  to 
the  Cochin,  as  both  have  a  rotund  formation,  the  Wyandotte 
being  described  as  a  fowl  of  curves.  The  most  striking  feature 
of  the  Wyandotte  is  the  rose  comb ;  this  was  formerly  described 
as  a  rocker  comb,  having  an  oval  or  crescent  shape  on  top,  and 
which  set  close  to  the  head;  the  spike  at  the  end  of  the  comb 
should  turn  down  and  not  be  straight  or  have  a  tendency  to 
run  up  at  the  rear;  the  beauty  of  the  comb  is  its  perfect  forma- 
tion, medium  size,  and  regular  series  of  indentations  or  small 
points  on  the  surface.  The  body  formation,  including  the  neck, 
should  be  short ;  the  back  and  breast  should  be  broad  and  deep ; 


264  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

in  fact,  the  entire  body  should  be  round,  as  seen  from  both  front 
and  side ;  the  legs  should  be  fairly  short ;  the  tail  should  be  full, 
with  cushion  more  prominent  in  the  female  than  in  the  male. 
The  main  tail  feathers,  in  both  male  and  female,  should  be  well 
spread  at  the  base ;  this  biiilds  out  the  cushion  and  the  back  and 
makes  an  oval  formation  about  the  tail,  down  to  a  line  with  the 
juncture  of  the  plumage  of  the  back  and  the  fluff  about  the 
abdomen. 

The  best  formed  Wyandotte  cocks  usually  weigh  9  pounds; 
cockerels,  8  pounds;  hens,  7  poimds;  pullets,  6  pounds.  This 
is  an  average  of  8  ounces  more  than  is  required  by  the  Standard. 
Fowls  of  a  size  that  equals  these  weights  can  be  put  in  the  show 
pen  in  a  most  attractive  condition ;  fowls  larger  or  smaller  than 
this  usually  lack  Wyandotte  type. 

All  varieties  of  Wyandotte  fowls  must  have  the  same  shape 
and  the  color  of  each  variety  must  conform  to  the  description 
in  the  Standard.  No  fowl  should  be  classed  as  a  Wyandotte 
that  does  not  have  the  breed  characters  described. 

The  top  plumage  of  the  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte  male  should 
be  silvery  white;  the  hackle  and  saddle  plumage  should.be 
striped  down  the  center  with  black  that  tapers  to  a  fine  line 
near  the  point  of  the  feather,  but  shotdd  never  extend  into  the 
white;  the  same  style  of  black  markings  should  exist  in  the 
saddle  hackles;  the  color  about  the  black  should  be  silvery 
white,  as  free  from  foreign  color  as  possible.  The  back  plu- 
mage should  be  of  the  same  color  and  have  a  white  center  fol- 
lowing the  shape  of  the  feather,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3;  the  breast 
plimiage  should  have  large  white  centers,  bordered  with  black ; 
the  same  kind  of  markings  shotdd  be  on  the  feathers  of  the 
thighs  and  extend  into  the  fluff,  but  with  less  regularity.  The 
wing  bows  shoidd  be  silvery  white;  the  wing  bays,  white,  with 
a  double  row  of  open-laced  feathers  forming  the  wing  bar 
between  them;  the  primaries  of  the  wing  should  be  black, 
edged  with  white;  the  secondaries,  partly  black  and  partly 
white,  and  that  part  of  the  web  of  the  feather  which  forms  the 
wing  bay  whoidd  be  white,  edged  with  black;  the  main  tail 
feathers,  sickles,  and  coverts  should  be  black,  the  lesser  coverts 
edged  with  white.     The  under  plumage  should  be  dark. 


§5 


AMERICAN  FOWLS 


265 


The  plumage  in  the  neck  of  the  female  should  be  silvery 
white,  striped  with  black;  the  feathers  of  the  entire  body  plu- 
mage, except  the  fluff,  should  have  large  white  centers  laced 

with  black,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4 ;  the  fluff  should 

be  marked  with  white  extending  into  the  under 

plumage,  but  not  be  so  pronounced  as  in  the 

back  and  body  markings ;  the  main  tail  feathers 

should  be  black;  the  coverts 

nearest  the  back  plumage 

should  be  centered  with  white; 

the  wing  primaries  shoiild  be 

black,  marked  with  white  on 

the  lower  edge;  the  secondaries 

should  be  black;  and  the  lower 

part,  white,  with  a  narrow  edge 

of  black  about  them ;  the  wings, 

when  folded,  should  show  white 

wing  bays  edged  with  black ;  fig.  4 

the  shanks  and  toes  should  be  yellow;  the  eyes  red;  the  face, 
comb,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes,  red,  with  no  enamel  white. 


43.  Mating. — Both  single  and  double  matings  are  prac- 
ticed for  the  production  of  exhibition  Silver-Laced  Wyandotte 
fowls.  The  claim  is  made  that  satisfactory  offspring  can  be  pro- 
duced by  single  matings,  provided  a  strain  has  been  established 
for  the  purpose,  but  that  this  cannot  be  accomplished  if  males 
or  females  from  a  line  produced  by  double  matings  are  intro- 
duecd  into  the  Hne  established  by  single  matings.  To  succeed 
in  the  single-ma,ting  system,  dark  slate  color  in  the  under  plu- 
mage must  be  eliminated  from  the  strain.  Both  males  and 
females  for  breeding  must  be  typical  Wyandotte  fowls — shape 
always  having  first  consideration. 

The  females  should  have  plumage  with  large  open  centers  of 
pure  white,  laced  with  rich,  glossy  black,  which  should  extend 
evenly  around  the  feather.  The  feathers  in  all  parts  should 
be  laced,  and  the  lacing  should  extend^ under  the  breast  and 
to  the,  thighs ;  the  small  feathers,  called  fillers,  that  grow  inside 
of  the  main  tail  feathers  should  have  large  white  centers,  with 


266  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

rich,  glossy-black  lacing.  Such  females  should  be  mated  with 
males  that  have  perfect  breed  characters,  and  have  been  bred 
in  line  for  the  purpose.  They  should  have  bright  red  eyes, 
perfect  Wyandotte  comb  of  medium  size,  and  the  lacing  on  the 
breast  should  not  be  too  open,  and  should  extend  low  down  on 
the  breast,  the  thighs  having  more  or  less  of  it;  the  most  impor- 
tant point  of  all  is  clear,  clean,  silvery  top  color,  including  neck 
and  saddle  hackles;  the  feathers  of  the  back  shoiild  have  white 
centers,  as  shown  in  Fig.  4,  and  the  under  parts  of  these  feathers 
should  be  almost  white. 

The  color  of  the  under  plumage  of  the  male  should  be  light. 
The  shaft  of  the  feathers,  in  both  males  and  females,  should  be 
white  close  to  the  skin. 

Double  mating  is  practiced  for  producing  in  Silver  Laced 
Wyandotte  males  and  females  a  more  exquisite  color  than  is 
usually  produced  by  single  matings.  The  requirement  of  the 
Standard  that  the  color  of  the  under  plumage  of  the  Silver 
Laced  Wyandotte  must  be  dark  has  an  injurious  influence, 
because  it  is  difficult  to  produce  from  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte 
breeding  fowls  with  dark  under  plumage,  offspring  with  good 
surface  color.  It  is  almost  impossible  to  produce  females  with 
clean  back  plumage,  and  feathers  having  open  centers  with 
an  oval  shape,  from  males  with  dark  under  plumage.  For 
this  reason,  females  perfect  in  form  and  color  are  mated  with 
males  having  white  centers  in  the  feathers  of  the  back  pltimage, 
white  in  the  under  plumage  of  the  back,  and  light  color  in  the 
rest  of  the  under  pltimage.  The  best  exhibition  pullets  are 
bred  from  matings  of  this  kind.  In  the  continuance  of  this 
strain  for  the  production  of  exhibition  females,  they  must  be 
as  carefully  line  bred  as  possible.  All  offspring  from  such 
matings  that  are  not  of  the  best  form  and  color  should  be  elim- 
inated. Only  males  should  be  retained  that  have  perfect 
Wyandotte  type,  clean,  clear  top  color,  white  open  lacing,  and 
breast  well  laced  with  brilliant  black,  the  lacing  extending  into 
the  plumage  of  the  thighs  and  abdomen.  To  strengthen  this 
strain,  females  of  perfect  color  with  dark  slate  under  plumage 
may  be  gradually  introduced  according  to  the  rules  for  estab- 
lishing a  strain.     The  constant  use  of  breeders  with  white  in 


§5 


AMERICAN  FOWLS 


267 


the  under  plumage  is  likely  to  bring  white  in  the  flight  feathers 
of  the  offspring. 

Silver  Laced  Wyandotte  males  fit  for  exhibition  may  come 
from  the  pullet-bred  strain,  and  when  they  do,  they  are  beau- 
tiful; the  usual  method,  however,  is  to  have  matings  especially 
for  the  production  of  exhibition  cockerels.  This  has  been 
accomplished  by  breeding  together  males  and  females  both 
of  which  have  beautiful  surface  plumage  and  dark  under  plu- 
mage, and  by  breeding  in  line  for  the  production  of  males  only, 
using  the  females  so  bred  for  producing  cockerels.  This  sci- 
entific method  has  produced  in  the  fowls  so  bred,  clean,  clear, 
surface  color,  white  top  color,  free  from  metallic  markings  in 
the  back;  a  double  row  of  beautifully  laced  feathers  on  the 
wing;  and  a  wing  bay  of  exquisite  color  and  markings.  An 
example  of  this  is 
shown  in  Fig.  5.  This 
kind  of  color  and 
markings  on  the  male 
came  from  line  breed- 
ing for  the  produc- 
tion of  cockerels.  In 
the  practice  of  this 
method,  the  best 
males  were  mated  to 
females  having  the 
most  exquisite  color 
and  markings,  and  no 
attention    was    given  ^'^-^ 

to  the  color  of  the  under  plumage.  The  best  offspring  from  this 
mating  were  paired  again  and  again  until  a  strain  was  established 
in  which  not  only  the  males  but  the  females  had  distinct  wing 
bars  and  wing  bays  all  of  which  were  delicately  edged  with  black. 
This  same  process  might  be  generally  applied  for  the  production 
of  males.  If,  however,  such  is  put  into  practice,  the  male  off- 
spring will  have  the  m.ost  beautiful  surface  color,  but,  if  judged 
strictly  by  the  American  Standard,  they  must  suffer  a  cut  for 
a  light  shade  in  the  under  plumage.  No  cut,  however,  will  be 
made  under  the  English  Standard. 


268  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §5 


GOLDEN  LACED  WYANDOTTE 

44.  Origin. — The  Golden  Laced  Wyandotte  fowls  orig- 
inated from  the  same  Hne  of  breeding  that  produced  the  Silver 
Laced  Wyandotte.  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte  females  were  bred 
with  Partridge  Cochin  males,  and  the  cockerels  so  produced 
were  crossed  with  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte  females. 

45.  Development. — The  Golden  Laced  Wyandotte  fowls 
were  developed  by  Joseph  McKeen,  of  Wisconsin,  who  selected 
Silver  Laced  Wyandotte  females  of  the  Whittaker  strain  and 
crossed  them  with  cockerels  that  were  produced  from  an  inter- 
mingling of  Pea-Comb  Partridge  Cochin,  Brown  Leghorn,  Buff 
Cochin,  and  Golden  Sebright  Bantam  fowls.  From  the  off- 
spring that  resiilted  from  this  intermingling  of  breeds,  a  fowl 
was  created  which  has  been  developed  into  the  Golden  Laced 
Wyandotte. 

46.  History. — The  Golden  Laced  Wyandotte  fowls  have 
been  better  bred  from  the  beginning  than  the  Silver  Laced 
Wyandotte  fowls.  There  was  more  unity  of  thought  as  to 
what  these  fowls  should  be  than  in  the  case  of  other  varieties, 
and  a  more  determined  effort  was  made  for  their  early  devel- 
opment. They  have  never  been  altered  from  the  original 
intent  of  those  who  created  them,  and  careful  breeding  has 
made  them  fowls  of  better  form  and  color  than  the  Silver  Laced 
Wyandottes. 

47.  Description. — The  Golden  Laced  Wyandotte  must 
have  the  same  breed  characters  and  form  as  described  for  the 
Silver  Laced  Wyandotte.  The  plumage  of  these  fowls  should 
be  a  golden  bay,  with  a  black  stripe  or  lacing  about  the  edge  of 
the  feathers;  the  neck  hackle  of  the  male  should  be  golden  bay, 
with  a  black  stripe  down  the  center  of  each  feather;  the  stripe 
should  taper  at  the  point,  but  it  must  not  extend  into  the  bay 
edging.  The  back  plumage  should  be  golden  bay,  striped 
with  black  and  centered  with  golden  bay;  the  breast,  body, 
and  fluff  should  be  golden  bay,  laced  with  black,  but  there  should 
be  less  color  and  lacing  in  the  under-body  plumage  and  fluff 
than  in  the  plumage  of  other  parts. 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  269 

The  neck  pliimage  of  the  female  should  be  golden  bay, 
striped  with  black ;  the  back,  breast,  and  body  plumage  should 
be  golden  bay,  laced  with  black;  the  centers  of  the  feathers 
should  be  large  and  oval,  forming  the  open  lacing  so  much 
admired.  The  wings  of  both  males  and  females  should  have 
black  flights,  edged  with  golden  bay;  the  secondaries  should 
be  black,  and  part  of  the  web  should  be  golden  bay,  edged 
with  black;  in  the  male,  when  the  wing  is  folded,  a  double- 
laced  bar  shows  between  tlie  bow  and  the  bay ;  the  color  of  the 
under  plumage  shoiild  be  slate  throughout;  the  eyes,  comb, 
face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  should  be  bright  red;  the  shanks 
and  toes  should  be  yellow  or  dusky  yellow. 

48.  Mating. — A  most  important  matter  to  consider  in 
selecting  Golden  Laced  Wyandotte  fowls  for  breeding  is  the 
color  of  their  under  plumage.  Although  the  Standard  demands 
a  dark  slate  color,  the  best  offspring  are  obtained  by  breeding 
from  fowls  with  a  golden  color  in  the  lower  part  of  the  under 
plumage,  next  to  the  skin ;  this  golden  color  in  the  under  plumage 
has  an  improving  influence  on  the  color  of  the  flights,  secon- 
daries, and  surface  color  of  the  offspring.  The  bay  center  in 
the  back  plimiage  of  the  males  is  also  of  prime  importance. 
Outside  of  these  features,  both  males  and  females  for  breeding 
should  be  selected  for  breed  characters  and  perfect  plimiage 
color.  Beautiful  males  and  females  can  be  bred  in  this  variety, 
from  the  same  matings,  provided  the  males  have  the  bay  mark- 
ings in  back  and  under  plumage  and  the  females  are  of  perfect 
form  and  color,  as  described  in  the  Standard.  Double  matings 
may  be  practiced  by  following  the  same  rules  described  for  the 
Silver  Laced  Wyandotte,  and  substituting  golden  bay  for  sil- 
very white. 

WHITE  WYANDOTTE 

49.  Origin. — The  Wlilte  Wyandotte  fowls  came  orig- 
inally as  white  offspring  from  the  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte. 
They  appeared  in  many  localities  and  were  selected,  separated, 
and  bred  together,  and  from  them  the  White  Wyandotte  fowls 
were  made. 


270  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

50.  Development. — Having  come  as  white-plumaged  off- 
spring from  the  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte,  the  White  Wyandotte 
fowls  had  the  same  breed  characters  as  their  ancestors  and 
were  equal  in  type  to  them.  Their  plinnage  was  not  pure 
white,  nor  was  their  shape  equal  to  that  of  the  Wyandotte 
fowls  of  the  present.  From  these,  as  the  result  of  scientific 
handling  by  many  of  the  best  poultry  fanciers,  the  White 
Wyandotte  fowls  have  been  developed.  It  was  said  of  this 
variety  that,  when  they  were  admitted  to  the  Standard  of 
1888,  they  were  the  most  complete  new  variety  that  had  ever 
been  admitted. 

51.  History. — The  history  of  the  White  Wyandotte  might 
be  written  as  the  story  of  the  favored  son.  From  the  begin- 
ning, they  have  been  favored,  fostered,  and  lauded  as  the  most 
beautifiil  of  all  fowls.  They  have  been  most  satisfactory  from 
the  fancier's  standpoint  and  are  highly  regarded  by  all  poiiltry- 
men  on  accoimt  of  being  excellent  egg  producers  and  market 
poultr>^ 

52.  Description. — The  White  Wyandotte  fowls  must 
have  perfect  breed  characters,  and  must  excel  those  of  all  other 
varieties  in  body  formation;  they  should  have  profuse  feather- 
ing within  a  reasonable  limit.  As  there  is  no  necessity  to 
inbreed  them  for  plumage  color,  all  attention  can  be  directed 
to  the  production  of  type.  They  must  be  round  in  body  and 
conform  in  a  general  way  to  the  shape  described  for  the  Silver 
Laced  Wyandotte ;  their  plimiage  should  be  piu-e  white  through- 
out, free  from  the  slightest  tinge,  tint,  or  speck  of  foreign  color; 
the  beak,  skin,  shanks,  and  toes  should  be  golden  yellow;  the 
eyes,  face,  comb,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  should  be  red,  with  no 
appearance  of  enamel  white  in  the  ear  lobes ;  they  should  possess 
proper  size  according  to  the  demands  of  the  Standard,  but  they 
should  not  be  so  large  as  to  detract  from  breed  characters. 

53.  Mating. — In  mating  White  Wyandotte  fowls,  the 
most  perfect  fowls  should  be  selected  and  mated  for  the  pro- 
duction of  a  strain  that  can  be  depended  on  to  produce  a  large 
percentage  of  offspring  that  will  be  able  to  win  honors  in  the 
exhibition  pen.     Size,  shape,  and  form  must  be  as  nearly  per- 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  271 

feet  in  the  White  Wyandotte  as  it  is  possible  to  produce,  and, 
in  addition  to  this,  the  plumage,  quills,  and  fluff,  down  to  the 
skin,  must  be  pure  white;  the  head  points,  red;  the  beak, 
shanks,  and  toes,  yellow.  The  features  to  be  avoided  in  the 
selection  of  the  breeding  stock  for  the  production  of  White 
Wyandotte  fowls  for  exhibition  are : 

1.  Imperfect  combs;  dark  color  in  the  shanks,  beaks,  or 
toes;  creaminess  in  the  surface  or  under  plumage;  pearl  color 
in  the  eyes;  and  enamel  white  in  the  ear  lobes. 

2.  Wyandotte  fowls  inherit  metallic  white  in  the  ear  lobes 
from  the  early  Hamburg  crosses.  If  fowls  with  this  defect  are 
used  as  breeders,  the  trouble  will  increase  rapidly.  None  of 
it  should  be  present  in  the  ear  lobes  of  the  breeding  stock. 

3.  Avoid  the  use  of  extreme  types  that  verge  on  Cochin 
form.  Have  all  the  feathers  permissible  in  the  Wyandotte, 
but  do  not  encourage  an  excess  of  cushion,  and  avoid  extreme 
flufhness  about  the  thighs  and  abdomen.  Plimiage  to  the 
limit  of  the  requirements  of  the  Wyandotte  is  the  most  that 
should  be  encouraged. 

4.  The  tail  of  the  Wyandotte  has  a  tendency  to  be  narrow 
across  the  saddle.  This  defect  increases  rapidly  in  the  off- 
spring, and  if  it  is  not  avoided  the  beauty  of  the  Wyandotte 
will  be  destroyed.  This  can  be  prevented  by  using  as  breeders 
only  fowls  that  are  very  broad  across  the  back  and  saddle  and 
which  have  great  width  between  the  lower  feathers  of  the  tail. 

5.  Never  be  misled  by  beautiful  form  into  using  in  the 
breeding  pen  males  or  females  that  have  straw,  yellow,  or  a 
brassy  color  on  the  surface  of  the  plumage.  Avoid,  as  far  as 
possible,  the  use  of  fully  developed  fowls  that  have  yellow  or 
cream  color  in  any  part  of  their  plumage.  Creaminess  is  apt 
to  show  in  the  new  feathers  as  they  grow,  but  this  is  usually 
lost  as  the  feathers  mature.  If,  however,  the  creaminess  shows 
in  the  surface  or  under  plumage  of  fully  matured  fowls,  they 
should  be  excluded  from  the  breeding  pen. 


272  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

BLACK  WYANDOTTE 

54.  Origin. — The  Black  Wyandotte  fowls  originated 
in  black  offspring  from  the  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte.  They 
were  first  mentioned  by  Messrs.  Clemens  and  Marshall,  who 
joined  in  selecting  and  improving  them. 

55.  Development. — The  early  development  of  the  Black 
Wyandotte  fowls  was  slow  and  uncertain.  The  diifictdties 
arising  from  the  yellowish  color  of  the  skin,  shanks,  and  toes 
made  almost  impossible  the  production  of  rich,  glossy,  black 
plumage  without  the  appearance  of  white. 

56.  History. — The  Black  Wyandotte  fowls  made  their 
appearance  in  several  localities  from  1883  to  1885.  They  came 
as  sports  from  the  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte.  When  such 
offspring  first  appeared  in  Mr.  Clemens'  flock  of  Silver  Laced 
Wyandotte  fowls,  he  bred  them  carefully  until  they  were 
brought  to  a  perfection  of  form  and  color  that  attracted  the 
attention  of  others,  who  followed  his  example.  By  their  efforts, 
the  Black  Wyandotte  was  admitted  to  the  American  Standard 
at  the  meeting  of  the  American  Poultry  Association,  at  Chicago, 
in  1893.  The  Black  Wyandotte  is  the  first  black-plumaged 
fowl  originated  in  America,  and  it  has  been  adopted  by  the 
English  fanciers,  who  recognized  its  true  value. 

57.  Description. — The  Black  Wyandotte  should  be  true 
Wyandotte  in  form ;  many  of  them  are  almost  perfect  in  shape. 
The  best  fowls  of  this  variety  that  have  been  bred  in  America 
have  dark  shanks,  and  the  soles  of  the  feet  are  yellow.  In 
England,  an  effort  has  been  made  to  have  them  intensely  black 
in  plumage,  with  golden  beak,  shanks,  and  toes.  The  Amer- 
ican Standard  demands  that  the  beak  and  toes  shall  be  black, 
shading  into  yellow,  and  the  bottom  of  the  feet  yellow.  In 
size,  the  Black  Wyandotte  is  equal  to  the  Silver  Laced  Wyan- 
dotte. The  plumage  should  be  rich,  glossy  black  throughout, 
and  have  no  foreign  color,  except  that  a  rich  green  sheen  is 
desirable.  There  is  a  tendency  to  purple  in  the  plimiage  of 
the  Black  Wyandotte — a  defect  that  exists  in  all  black-plimiaged 
fowls  that  have  an  excess  of  green  sheen. 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  273 

58.  Mating. — In  the  mating  of  Black  Wyandotte  fowls 
for  the  production  of  exhibition  offspring,  only  those  having 
uniform  Wyandotte  type  and  perfect  color  should  be  selected. 
To  follow  the  rules  of  the  American  Standard,  the  shanks  may 
be  black;  with  this  color  in  the  shanks,  it  is  the  least  difficult 
to  produce  perfect  plumage  in  the  offspring.  When  there  is  an 
excess  of  yellow  in  the  shanks  of  the  parent  fowls,  more  or  less 
gray  or  white  is  likely  to  appear  in  the  flights  and  secondaries, 
and  in  the  imder  plumage  close  to  the  skin  of  the  offspring. 
To  produce  the  best  offspring  in  this  variety,  the  feathers  of 
the  breeding  stock  must  be  black,  including  the  web,  under 
plumage,  and  shaft  of  the  feathers;  if  the  color  is  so^rich  as  to 
have  the  shafts  glistening  with  sheen  down  to  the  skin,  a  trans- 
mission of  pure  color  to  the  offspring  will  be  almost  assured, 
but  when  there  is  too  much  sheen  in  the  breeding  fowls  there 
is  likely  to  be  more  or  less  purple  barring  in  the  plumage  of  the 
offspring.  In  England,  the  task  is  more  difficult,  for  to  pro- 
duce black-plumaged  fowls  with  yellow  shanks,  with  no  for- 
eign color  in  the  plumage,  requires  great  care  in  the  matings. 
A  strain  may  be  established  that  will  breed  true  to  shape  and 
color.  

BUFF  WYANDOTTE 

59.  Origin  and  Development. — The  Buff  Wyandotte 

fowls  originally  came  from  crossing  a  Golden  Laced  Wyandotte 
male  with  a  Buff  Cochin  female.  A  cockerel  from  this  mating 
had  buff-colored  plumage,  no  feathers  on  the  shanks  or  toes, 
and  a  fairly  good  Wyandotte  comb.  He  was  mated  with  a 
Buff  Cochin  pullet  that  was  beautiful  in  color,  had  but  few 
feathers  on  the  shanks  and  toes,  and  was  fairly  close  feathered. 
The  best  offspring  bred  from  this  mating  were  selected  and 
mated  until  a  variety  of  fairly  good  Wyandotte  type  and  with 
buff-colored  plumage  was  established.  Another  strain  came 
from  Rhode  Island  Red  fowls ;  still  another  came  from  Golden- 
Laced  Wyandotte  females  that  had  but  little  lacing  and  were 
buff  colored,  mated  with  males  from  the  other  strains. 

The  crude  originals  had  so  many  defects  that  they  had  to 
be  almost  entirely  made  over  before  they  could  be  accepted 


574  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

as  a  true  variety.  The  development  of  the  fowls  of  this  vari- 
ety began  eariy  in  the  decade  of  1890,  and  was  only  partly 
complete  when  the  variety  was  admitted  to  the  American 
Standard  of  1893.  Since  that  time,  the  fowls  have  been 
greatly  improved,  and  they  have  developed  into  one  of  the 
most  beautiftil  of  the  Wyandotte  varieties. 

The  Buff  Wyandotte  has  been  a  favorite  variety  with  poul- 
try fanciers  ever  since  the  fowls  made  their  first  appearance. 
A  light  shade  of  biiff  was  preferred  from  the  first,  and  for  this 
reason  they  suffered  but  little  from  the  inroad  of  black. 

60.  Description. — Shape  requirements  for  the  Buff 
Wyandotte  are  the  same  as  for  other  Wyandotte  varieties. 
The  fowls  must  have  rich,  golden-buff  plumage,  free  from 
shaftiness  or  a  mealy  appearance;  their  under  plumage  must 
be  a  lighter  shade  of  buff  than  the  surface  pliunage,  and  no 
black,  white,  or  other  foreign  color  should  appear  in  it.  The 
comb  should  be  the  same  as  that  of  other  varieties.  Comb, 
face,  wattles,  ear  lobes,  and  eyes  should  be  red,  and  the  shanks 
and  toes  should  be  golden  yellow. 

61.  Mating. — In  the  mating  of  Buff  Wyandotte  fowls, 
special  attention  must  be  given  to  form  and  to  the  surface 
and  imder  plumage  of  females.  They  are  likely  to  have  legs 
that  are  too  long  and  backs  that  are  too  narrow  across  the 
saddle.  These  deficiencies  can  be  avoided  in  the  offspring 
by  using,  in  the  breeding  pen,  only  females  that  approach  the 
best  of  the  white  variety  in  body  formation.  Males  for  the 
production  of  exhibition  fowls  must  have  perfect  breed  char- 
acters and  a  rich  golden-buff  top  color,  glistening  with  sheen; 
the  under  plimiage  should  be  buff,  a  shade  lighter  than  the 
surface.  The  plumage  color  of  both  males  and  females  should 
conform  to  the  color  description  of  Buff  Cochin  fowls.  The 
rules  for  mating  Buff  Cochin  fowls  for  color  should  be  applied 
to  this  variety  of  Wyandotte  fowls.  A  proper  mating  for 
improving  plimiage  color  in  fowls  of  this  variety  is  to  mate 
even-colored  fowls;  the  breast  of  the  female  should  be  a  shade 
lighter  than  the  breast  of  the  male,  and  both  should  have  buff 
under  plumage. 


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§5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  275 


COLUMBIAN  WYANDOTTE 

62.  Origin. — The  Columbian  Wyandotte  fowls  have 
originated  from  crossing  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  with  Light 
Brahmas,  from  crossing  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  with  White 
Wyandottes,  and  from  crossing  White  Wyandottes  and  Light 
Brahmas.  All  Columbian  Wyandottes  have  a  preponderance 
of  Light  Brahma  blood  in  their  makeup. 

63.  Development. — From  1889  to  1893,  Mr.  Briggs  was 
the  only  one  to  breed  Columbian  Wyandotte  fowls.  Later  a 
niimber  of  fanciers  began  to  breed  them,  and  they  were  devel- 
oped into  a  fowl  of  Wyandotte  type,  having  Light  Brahma 
color. 

64.  History. — Columbian  Wyandottes  were  first  exhib- 
ited in  1894.  Later,  an  effort  was  made  to  create  new  strains 
by  cross-mating  fowls  from  the  original  strains.  This  caused 
difficulties,  because  they  sprang  from  so  many  breeds  and 
varieties  that  their  offspring  were  of  uncertain  plumage  color 
and  markings.  The  first  application  for  the  admission  of  the 
variety  to  the  American  Standard  was  refused;  but  it  was 
admitted  to  the  Standard  of  1906,  and  since  that  time  the  fowls 
have  been  greatly  improved  both  in  form  and  color. 

65.  Description. — Colimibian  Wyandotte  fowls  are 
required  to  have  the  true  breed  characters  of  all  Wyandottes; 
the  plumage  color  shoiild  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  Light 
Brahma;  the  beak  should  be  slightly  darker  than  that  of 
the  Light  Brahma.  The  catalog  of  the  National  Columbian 
Wyandotte  Club,  issued  in  1910,  states  that  the  under  plimiage 
in  all  parts  should  be  white  at  the  base,  or  next  to  the  skin, 
and  that  the  rest  of  the  under  plumage  should  be  white,  bluish 
white,  or  slate  (preferred  in  the  order  named).  The  same 
shade  of  color  should  prevail  throughout  the  under  plumage 
of  the  entire  body,  in  both  males  and  females;  otherwise,  the 
color  description  for  the  Columbian  Wyandotte  is  the  same 
as  that  for  the  Light  Brahma.  The  shanks  or  toes  should  be 
yellow,  or  reddish  yellow,  with  no  feathers,  stubs,  or  down 
on  them. 


276 


AMERICAN  FOWLS 


§5 


66.  Mating. — In  the  mating  of  the  Columbian  Wyandotte 
fowls,  special  attention  must  be  given  to  correcting  defects  of 
shape  and  color.  To  improve  shape,  males  and  females  of 
the  best  Wyandotte  type  shoiild  be  selected  for  breeding  fowls. 
In  selecting  Columbian  Wyandotte  breeding  fowls  avoid  as 
far  as  possible  those  that  have  the  heavy  tail  of  the  Brahma; 
select  those  that  are  broad  and  fuU  across  the  back  and  saddle, 
with  a  cushion  fuUy  equal  to  the  demands  of  the  Standard 
for  the  shape  of  the  Wyandotte.  Even  though  they  have  more 
cushion  than  is  suited  to  the  Wyandotte,  this  will  not  cause 

trouble,  because  a  large 
percentage  of  the  offspring 
from  the  best  males  are 
likely  to  be  narrow  across 
the  back  and  saddle.  It 
is  difficult  to  breed  color 
in  the  Columbian  Wyan- 
dotte equal  to  that  of  the 
best  Light  Brahma  fowls. 
For  the  male,  the  Stand- 
ard demands  a  white  neck 
with  a  black  stripe  on  the 
hackle  feathers,  the  same 
as  in  Light  Brahma  males. 
To  breed  this  in  the  off- 
spring, there  must  be  as 
much  of  it  as  possible  in  the  male  selected  for  the  breeding  pen; 
his  wing  flights  must  be  black,  with  an  edge  of  white  about  the 
lower  web;  the  small,  or  pinion,  feathers  should  be  edged  with 
white;  the  main  tail  feathers,  black;  the  tail  coverts,  black; 
the  lesser  coverts,  black,  edged  with  white;  the  filling  beneath 
the  tail,  white,  marked  with  black;  the  imder  plimiage,  bluish 
white  or  slate  color. 

The  female  shoiild  have  hackle  pliimage  like  that  of  Light 
Brahma  females.  The  wing  flights  should  be  black,  like  those 
shown  in  Fig.  6,  and  both  flights  and  pinions  should  be  edged 
with  white;  the  lower  web  of  the  secondaries  should  be  white. 
When  the  wings  are  folded,  the  white  should  hide  the  black  in 


Fig.  6 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  277 

the  secondaries;  the  main  tail  feathers  should  be  black,  sur- 
rounded with  white;  the  surface  pliunage,  white.  To  breed 
exhibition  offspring  that  will  he  strong  in  color,  bluish  white 
under  plumage  will  be  best  in  the  parents.  Clear,  surface 
plumage  will  come  from  females  having  pure  white  siuf ace  and 
under  color  throughout. 

An.  extreme  mating  consists  of  a  male  that  has  intense  black 
in  neck  hackle,  black  striping  in  back  plumage,  intense  black 
in  the  main  tail  feathers,  and  coverts  edged  with  white,  as 


shown  in  Fig.  7.  The  under  plimiage  should  have  so  much 
blue  or  slate  as  almost  to  show  through  the  siirface  plumage. 
The  wing  flights  should  be  black.  Such  males  mated  with 
females  that  have  perfect  black  markings  in  neck,  tail  coverts, 
and  wings,  with  strong  color  in  under  plumage,  very  dark 
wings,  and  an  intensely  black  tail,  will  produce  dark-colored 
offspring,  many  of  which  will  be  culls,  and  a  few  will  be  high- 
class  exhibition  fowls.  The  most  salable  offspring  will  be 
produced  from  males  that  are  well  striped  in  hackle,  have  dark 


278  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

wings  and  tail,  clear  surface  plumage,  and  blue  under  plumage. 
Such  males  mated  with  females  that  have  rich  black  in  neck 
hackle,  wings,  and  tails,  with  white  surface  plumage  and  under 
pltnnage  lightly  tinted  with  blue,  will  produce  offspring  having 
but  little  dark  marking  in  their  stuface  plumage.  Such  fowls 
are  shown  in  the  color  illustration.  Further  information  that 
may  be  applied  to  the  production  of  color  in  Columbian 
Wyandottes  may  be  found  in  the  rules  for  producing  Light 
Brahmas.  

PARTRIDGE  WYANDOTTE 

67.  Origin. — One  strain  of  the  Partridge  Wyandotte 

was  made  by  crossing  Golden  Laced  Wyandotte  with  Partridge 
Cochin  fowls.  Another  strain  was  made  by  intermingling 
Asiatic,  Cornish,  or  Indian,  Game,  Golden  Wyandotte,  and 
Pea-Comb  Partridge  Cochin  fowls.  The  Asiatic  used  was  a 
combination  of  Buff  Cochin,  Pea-Comb  Partridge  Cochin,  and 
Brown  Leghorn  fowls. 

68.  Development.— The  development  of  the  Partridge 
Wyandotte  fowls  was  slow  and  irregular.  The  mingling  of  so 
many  kinds  of  fowls  into  one  variety  produced  bad  form, 
irregular  color  in  plumage,  and  bad  color  in  shanks  and  feet. 
Many  of  the  females  had  shanks  that  were  almost  black,  and 
a  few  of  the  males  had  yellowish-black  shanks.  Great  dif- 
ficulties were  encountered  when  an  attempt  was  made  to 
improve  the  fowls  through  the  union  of  both  strains.  Later 
they  were  improved  by  careful  selection  and  breeding,  and 
they  now  possess  Wyandotte  type  and  Partridge  Cochin 
plumage  color. 

69.  History. — The  original  strain  of  the  Partridge  Wyan- 
dotte was  called  Golden  Penciled  Wyandotte,  and  for  some 
time  no  other  strain  was  mentioned.  With  the  coming  of 
other  strains  the  name  was  changed  to  Partridge  Wyandotte, 
and  the  variety  was  admitted  under  this  name  at  the  Chicago 
meeting  of  the  American  Poultry  Association,  in  1901.  The 
greatest  obstacle  to  the  advancement  of  the  variety  has  been 
the  demand  for  extremely  dark  color  and  markings  in  both 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  279 

males  and  females.  Even  at  the  present,  there  are  but  few 
females  of  this  variety  that  have  yellow  shanks.  Shortly  after 
its  admission  to  the  Standard,  this  variety  was  adopted  by  the 
fanciers  of  England,  who  have  made  it  popular  for  both  exhi- 
bition and  utility  purposes.  The  color  in  the  males  and  females 
bred  in  England  is  much  lighter  than  is  preferred  in  America. 

70.  Description. — The  Partridge  Wyandotte  should  be 
a  true  Wyandotte  in  size  and  shape,  and  its  plumage  should  be 
the  same  color  as  described  for  the  Partridge  Cochin.  Although 
the  Standard  requires  the  females  to  have  rich,  mahogany- 
colored  plumage,  penciled  with  brown  or  black,  they  have  been 
bred  so  dark  in  plumage  as  to  make  it  almost  impossible  for 
them  to  have  yellow  shanks.  The  Standard  demands  that 
they  shall  be  disqualified  for  shanks  and  toes  other  than  yellow, 
but  this  has  not  been  enforced  or  but  few  fowls  of  this  variety 
would  be  seen  at  the  present  time.  Partridge  Wyandotte  males 
shoiild  have  the  same  plumage  color  and  markings  as  Partridge 
Cochin  males;  the  shanks  and  feet  of  both  males  and  females 
should  be  yellow  or  dusky  yellow.  If  the  description  in  the 
Standard  were  more  closely  followed,  Partridge  Wyandotte 
fowls  would  soon  regain  their  lost  popularity. 

■71.  Mating. — Three  methods  may  be  followed  in  mating 
Partridge  Wyandotte  fowls:  (1)  Single  matings  for  the  pro- 
duction of  both  males  and  females;  (2)  special  matings  for  the 
production  of  females;  (3)  special  matings  for  the  production 
of  males. 

There  is  no  known  system  of  mating  Partridge  Wyandotte 
fowls  whereby  females  having  yellow  shanks  and  toes  and 
standard  color  in  plumage  can,  with  certainty,  be  produced. 
In  this  variety,  single  matings  for  the  production  of  exhibition 
offspring  can  be  made  successful  to  a  limited  extent  only. 
It  is  almost  impossible  to  produce,  by  single  mating,  males 
with  rich,  red,  top  color,  heavily  striped  with  black,  and  females 
of  a  rich,  deep,  mahogany  color,  penciled  with  a  darker  shade. 
If  single  matings  produce  females  of  perfect  exhibition  color, 
the  males  resulting  from  the  same  mating  will  be  too  light  in 
color  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  Standard.     If  the  single 


280  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

mating  produces  males  of  rich,  brilliant  red  and  glistening 
black,  the  females  from  the  same  mating  will  be  much  too  dark, 
badly  penciled,  and  very  dark  in  the  shanks  and  toes.  To 
succeed  with  single  matings,  the  fancier  must  be  content  with 
the  production  of  either  males  or  females  of  the  best  quality. 

For  the  production  of  exhibition  cockerels,  males  fit  for 
exhibition  must  be  used  in  the  matings.  They  must  have 
perfect  Wyandotte  type ;  the  neck  hackle  should  be  red,  striped 
with  black;  the  saddle,  of  the  same  color,  striped  with  black; 
the  back,  a  darker  red;  the  main  tail,  sicldes,  coverts,  and 
lesser  coverts,  black,  with  a  green  sheen;  the  lesser  coverts, 
laced  with  red;  the  breast  and  tmder-body  plumage,  black, 
with  green  sheen;  the  imder  plimiage,  dark  slate.  Such  males, 
mated  with  the  best  females  that  can  be  secured,  will  produce 
cockerels  fit  for  exhibition.  The  females  produced  must  be 
kept  and  mated  again  to  males  of  the  same  quality,  and  in  this 
way  a  strain  can  be  made  that  will  produce  high-class  exhibition 
cockerels.  The  size,  shape,  and  color  must  depend  entirely 
on  these  qualities  as  possessed  by  the  parent  stock.  Yellow 
shanks  are  not  so  difhcult  to  produce  in  males  as  in  females. 

To  produce  exhibition  Partridge  Wyandotte  pullets,  females 
of  the  most  perfect  size,  shape,  and  color  for  exhibition  should 
be  mated  to  males  chosen  from  a  pullet-breeding  strain.  The 
best  females  produced  from  such  a  mating  should  be  remated 
to  the  best  males  from  the  same  mating.  This  process  should 
be  continued  until  a  strain  for  breeding  pullets  has  been  estab- 
lished. The  main  diffictdties  in  the  production  of  pullets  for 
exhibition  will  be  dark  color  in  the  shanks,  too  great  length 
of  legs,  irregular  combs,  and  dark  under  plumage.  To  have 
yellow  shanks  in  the  offspring,  it  is  necessary  to  use  for  breeders 
fowls  that  have  yellow  shanks  and  skin. 

The  best  pullets  of  this  variety  are  produced  from  males 
with  Hght  top  color,  and  a  light  shade  in  the  under  plimiage 
in  the  neck  and  saddle  and  about  the  base  of  the  tail.  The 
best  cockerels  are  produced  from  males  that  are  dark  in 
surface  and  under  plimiage,  mated  with  females  of  like  qual- 
ity. Matings  as  described,  for  the  production  of  Partridge 
Cochin  fowls  should  be  closely  followed  in  all  varieties  having 


J 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  281 

Partridge  Cochin  color.  In  all  the  matings  described,  the 
method  for  establishing  a  strain  should  be  followed  and  the 
mating-chart  system  applied. 


SILVER  PENCILED  WYANDOTTE 

72.  Origin. — The    first     Silver    Penciled    Wyandotte 

fowls  were  produced  by  Ezra  Cornell,  of  Ithaca,  New  York, 
and  George  H.  Brackenbury,  of  Auburn,  New  York.  They 
were  produced  by  blending  the  best  strains  of  Silver  Laced 
Wyandotte,  Dark  Brahma,  and  Silver  Penciled  Hambiu-g 
fowls.  The  first  matings  were  made  in  1894;  they  were  a  Dark 
Brahma  female  with  a  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte  male,  a  Silver 
Penciled  Hamburg  female  with  a  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte  male, 
and  the  offspring  from  these  crosses  were  mated;  later  a  beauti- 
fvd  Dark  Brahma  female  was  mated  to  a  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte 
male  that  had  no  lacing  on  the  breast  or  body;  the  Dark  Brahma 
female  was  mated  to  one  of  her  own  offspring ;  the  cockerels  and 
pullets  from  this  mating  were  mated  to  the  original  offspring 
from  the  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte  male,  and  the  Dark  Brahma 
female.  The  best  offspring  from  all  were  mated,  remated,  and 
cross-mated,  until  the  Silver  Penciled  Wyandotte  was  well  estab- 
lished in  size,  shape,  and  color  as  demanded  for  the  variety. 

73.  Development. — The  Silver  Penciled  Wyandottes 
were  developed  from  a  source  that  made  it  possible  for  them 
to  have  shanks  and  toes  of  a  golden  yellow,  and  in  their  devel- 
opment special  attention  was  given  to  Wyandotte  type,  clean, 
clear  color  and  markings,  and  the  realization  of  every  feature 
required  in  a  Wyandotte  true  to  form  and  beautiful  in  plumage 
color. 

74.  History. — Several  strains  of  Silver  Penciled  Wyan- 
dotte fowls  were  developed  in  making  this  variety.  From  the 
strains  that  were  rnade  by  intermingling  Silver  Laced  Wyan- 
dotte, Dark  Brahjna,  and  Silver  Penciled  Hamburg  fowls,  off- 
spring with  badly  colored  shanks  were  produced;  from  the 
strain  that  contained  only  Dark  Brahma  and  Silver  Laced 
Wyandotte,  the  most  nearly  perfect  offspring  were  produced. 


282  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

75.  Description. — The  Silver  Penciled  Wyandotte  is  a 
true  Wyandotte  in  size  and  formation,  and  has  plumage  color 
like  the  Dark  Brahma;  the  fowls  of  this  variety  have  yellow 
shanks  and  toes  without  feathers.  The  elimination  of  the 
Hamburg  influence,  by  the  use  of  Dark  Brahma  females  from 
the  best  pullet-breeding  strains,  has  prevented  brown  or  metallic 
black  from  appearing  in  the  top  color  of  the  males,  and  has 
brightened  the  plumage  of  the  females.  The  top  color  of  the 
males  is  a  clean,  silvery  white,  with  black  striping  in  the  hackle 
and  saddle.  The  entire  plumage  of  the  females  is  silver  gray, 
penciled  with  darker  lines  that  follow  the  shape  of  the  feather. 

76.  Mating. — To  be  successfiil  in  the  production  of  the 
penciled  plumage  of  the  Silver  Penciled  Wyandotte,  it  is 
necessary  to  follow  the  same  general  rules  that  are  necessary 
for  producing  Dark  Brahma  and  Silver  Penciled  Plymouth 
Rock  fowls.  Experience  teaches  that  but  little  attention  can 
be  paid  to  the  Standard  reqtdrement  of  dark  under  plumage 
in  this  variety.  Clean  siu-face  color,  with  a  lighter  shade  of 
color  in  the  imder  plumage  next  to. the  skin,  is  best  suited  for 
producing  offspring  with  beautiful  surface  plumage.  Special 
attention  must  be  given  to  selecting  perfect  Wyandotte  type 
in  the  fowls  for  mating,  and  these  must  be  of  the  best  color 
obtainable.  When  mated  in  this  way,  pullets  of  proper  color 
will  be  produced,  and  males  of  excellent  color  will  come  from 
the  same  matings.  When  the  process  is  continued  for  several 
generations,  the  cockerels  will  have  white  markings  on  the 
feathers  of  the  breast  and  under-body  plumage.  To  prevent 
this  from  appearing  in  their  offspring,  such  males  shoiild  be 
mated  with  females  that  are  darker  than  are  preferred  for  exhi- 
bition; in  this  way,  better  breast  color  in  males  will  be  obtained. 
Fowls  having  yellow  skin  and  shanks  are  of  advantage  in  this 
variety,  for  from  them  fowls  with  clean,  yellow  shanks  can  be 
bred.  The  rules  for  mating  Dark  Brahma  fowls  for  color  wiU 
apply  also  to  this  variety. 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  283 


NON-STANDARD  VARIETIES  OF  WYANDOTTE 


BIRCHEN    WYANDOTTE 

77.  The  Birchen  Wyandotte  is  a  variety  of  fowls  that 
has  been  bred  in  England  for  some  time.  In  color  the  fowls 
are  a  compromise  between  the  Birchen  Game  and  the  Silver 
Laced  Wyandotte,  and  have  been  described  as  Black  Pyle 
Wyandottes  with  lacing  on  the  breast  and  the  body  pliimage. 
They  do  not  have  color  and  markings  equal  to  the  Birchen 
Game  fowls.  The  Birchen  Wyandotte  is  said  to  have  been 
produced  by  promiscuous  matings  of  Black,  White,  and  Silver 
Laced  Wyandotte  fowls.  For  producing  attractive  quality  in 
this  variety  of  Wyandotte  fowls,  the  rules  for  mating  Birchen 
Game  fowls  should  be  followed. 


BLUE    WYANDOTTE 

78.  The  Blue  Wyandotte  was  produced  from  an  inter- 
mingling of  the  White,  the  Black,  and  the  Silver  Laced  Wyan- 
dotte fowls.  In  color  and  markings,  the  fowls  should  be  like 
the  Blue  Andalusian.  They  are  difficult  to  produce  of  even 
an  average  quality.  To  produce  and  maintain  proper  color 
in  this  variety,  the  directions  for  mating  Andalusian  fowls 
should  be  followed.  

BUFF    COLUMBIAN    WYANDOTTE 

79.  Origin. — The  Buff  Columbian  Wyandotte  fowls 
were  made  by  crossing  a  Buff  Brahma  cockerel  with  a  Colum- 
bian Wyandotte  female,  and  the  offspring  from  this  mating 
were  mated  with  Rhode  Island  Red  fowls.  The  best  off- 
spring from  these  crosses  were  mated  and  their  offspring 
remated  for  the  production  of  this  variety. 

80.  Description. — The  Buff  Columbian  Wyandotte 
should  have  the  same  form  and  general  breed  characters  as 
other  Wyandotte  fowls;  the  color  in  the  plumage  shoiild  be 
buff  where  the  color  in  the  plumage  of  the  Columbian  Wyan- 


284  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

dotte  is  white,  and  black  where  the  Columbian  Wyandotte  is 
black.  The  buff  should  be  the  same  shade  that  is  preferred 
for  the  Buff  Wyandotte,  and  the  markings  should  be  as  dis- 
tinct as  in  the  Columbian  Wyandotte. 

Single-comb  fowls  having  the  same  color  and  markings  are 
called  Biiff  Colimibian  Plymouth  Rocks. 

81.  Mating. — Buff  Columbian  Wyandotte  fowls  used  for 
breeding  purposes  should  have  Wyandotte  shape,  buff  color, 
and  markings  the  same  as  in  the  Coltimbian  Wyandotte.  This 
variety  is  as  yet  too  immature  to  make  it  possible  to  give 
definite  instructions  for  mating. 


WHITE -LACED    BUFF    WYANDOTTE 

82.  Origin. — The  Wliite-Laced  Buff  Wyandotte  fowls 
made  their  appearance  in  the  yards  of  several  fanciers  who 
were  interested  in  making  new  varieties.  By  crossing  and 
recrossing  several  breeds,  a  fowl  was  produced  much  like  the 
Golden  Wyandotte,  but  it  had  white  instead  of  black  lacing 
on  the  feathers.  The  general  color  throughout  was  a  mixture 
of  buff  and  white.  Some  strains  were  made  by  crossing  Golden 
Laced  and  White  Wyandotte  fowls,  and  remating  the  best  off- 
spring to  produce  blue  lacing  on  a  golden-colored  Wyandotte. 

83.  Development. — The  White-Laced  Buff  Wyandotte 
fowls  were  developed  incidentally  in  an  effort  to  produce  other 
varieties.  A  crossing  of  the  Buff  Cochin  and  the  Golden- 
Laced  Wyandotte  produced  offspring  with  a  buff  color  in  the 
center  of  the  feathers,  and  the  influence  of  the  White  Wyan- 
dotte was  responsible  for  the  white  lacing  about  the  huK  cen- 
ter. Fowls  of  this  variety  were  bred  to  some  extent  in  America, 
but  the  best  were  produced  in  England.  Harrison  Weir,  of 
England,  illustrated  them  in  his  "Book  of  Poultry";  the  male 
in  his  illustration  is  reddish  buff,  laced  with  white;  the  main 
tail  feathers  are  reddish  blue ;  the  sickles  and  coverts  are  white, 
marked  with  red.  The  female  is  reddish  buff  on  the  body,  and 
the  neck  is  marked  with  white;  the  body  plumage  is  laced  with 
violet;  and  the  tail  is  violet.     This  would  indicate  that  what 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  285 

Mr.  Weir  called  the  White-Laced  Red  and  the  Violet-Laced 
Wyandotte  fowls  both  existed  in  England  prior  to  1902. 

84.  Description. — The  White-Laced  Biiff  Wyandotte 
fowls  have  form  resembling  other  Wyandotte  fowls;  and  plu- 
mage color  that  is  bufE,  laced  with  white.  Some  of  the  fowls 
have  large,  open  centers  of  buff  in  the  web  of  the  feathers, 
which  are  laced  with  white.  Some  of  the  males  have  well- 
defined  wing  bars ;  the  color  of  both  males  and  females  is  lighter 
in  the  neck  and  tail  than  in  the  body  plumage.  The  English 
Standard  describes  them  as  having  yeUow  beaks,  or  yellow- 
tipped  and  horn-colored  beaks ;  their  eyes  are  bright  bay ;  their 
combs,  face,  ear  lobes,  and  wattles,  bright  red;  their  legs  and 
feet,  bright  yellow.  The  head  of  the  male  is  a  rich  buff;  the 
plumage  of  the  neck  and  saddle  is  also  rich  buff,  each  feather 
striped  down  the  center  with  white;  the  breast  and  thighs 
are  buff,  with  clear,  regular,  white  lacing;  the  imder  plumage 
is  white;  the  back,  shoulders,  and  wing  bows  are  solid  buff  of 
the  same  shade  as  the  saddle  plumage;  the  wing  bars  are  hufi, 
laced  with  white;  the  secondaries  are  white  on  the  inner  web, 
and  in  the  fluff  and  the  under  plumage  are  pure  white.  The 
neck  plumage  of  the  females  conforms  in  color  to  that  of  the 
males ;  the  entire  body  pliimage  is  a  rich  buff,  with  regular  white 
lacing;  the  secondaries  are  buff,  with  white  lacing  on  the  outer 
web ;  the  fluff  and  the  tail  are  white,  and  the  lacing  on  the  cush- 
ion extends  into  the  tail  coverts. 

85.  Mating. — In  the  mating  of  White-Laced  Buff  Wyan- 
dotte fowls,  the  best  males  and  females  should  be  selected  for 
breeders  and  mated  and  remated  with  a  view  to  retaining 
Wyandotte  shape  and  improving  color  and  markings.  One 
of  the  main  difficulties  in  this  variety  is  to  prevent  black  and 
white  from  appearing  in  the  tail  feathers,  bad  color  in  the  wings, 
and  too  much  white  in  the  neck  hackle ;  dark  mossing  is  apt 
to  appear  in  the  back  plumage  of  females,  and  it  is  difficult  to 
maintain  the  rich,  golden  buff  marked  with  white.  A  strain 
should  be  established  for  producing  the  proper  color  and 
ma;-kings. 


286  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 


CUCKOO    WYANDOTTE 

86.  The  Cuckoo  Wyandotte  fowls  have  been  produced 
in  both  America  and  England.  They  came  from  crossing 
Barred  Plymouth  Rock  with  Silver  Wyandotte  fowls,  and  by 
selecting  and  remating  the  offspring.  In  form,  they  are  a 
composite  of  Plymouth  Rock  and  Wyandotte  type ;  in  plimiage 
they  are  like  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  fowls.  The  quality  of 
the  fowls  that  have  been  bred  up  to  this  time  is  not  good,  and 
hence  they  are  not  attractive;  they  are  too  nearly  like  the 
American  Dominique  to  permit  them  to  become  popular. 
They  may  be  produced  by  mating  well-marked  Dominique 
males  with  pure  black  and  pure  white  Wyandotte  females. 
The  best  females  from  this  mating  should  be  mated  with  their 
own  sire,  or  with  another  Dominique  male;  if  any  males  from 
this  mating  have  Wyandotte  type  and  Plymouth  Rock  color, 
the  best  of  them  may  be  mated  to  one  or  more  of  the  ptillets 
having  Dominique  color.  The  best  offspring  from  all  these 
matings  should  be  selected  for  Wyandotte  type  and  comb, 
and  Dominique  color  and  markings,  and  should  be  mated  and 
remated  until  a  strain  has  been  established. 


PYLB    COLORED    WYANDOTTE 

87.  The  Pyle  Colored  Wyandotte  fowls  were  produced 
by  mating  a  Partridge  Wyandotte  male  with  White  Wyan- 
dotte females.  The  top  color  of  the  males  of  this  variety, 
including  the  neck  hackle,  should  be  red  and  free  from  striping. 
To  obtain  this,  but  little  black  striping  must  appear  in  the  top 
color  of  the  males  used  in  the  matings.  A  White  Wyandotte 
male  may  be  mated  with  a  Partridge  Wyandotte  female  that 
is  as  Hght  in  color  as  possible,  and  that  has  indistinct  penciling 
and  Hght  or  gray  imder  plimiage.  The  best  offspring  from 
these  matings  should  be  mated  and  remated  tmtil  Pyle  Colored 
Wyandottes  are  produced. 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  287 

VIOLET-LACED    WYANDOTTE 

88.  Origin. — Wyandotte  fowls  have  been  produced  with 
the  center  of  the  feathers  blue,  laced  with  a  lighter  shade; 
others,  with  center  colors  golden  bay,  laced  with  blue  or  violet ; 
and  still  others  with  center  colors  of  a  Hght  blue,  laced  with  a 
darker  shade  of  blue. 

The  Violet-Laced  Wyandotte  was  produced  by  promis- 
cuous matings  to  produce  Wyandottes.  The  offspring  of  these 
matings  had  feathers  with  a  ground  color  like  that  of  the 
Golden  Laced  Wyandottes  and  with  a  blue  lacing  about  the 
edge.  Similar  markings  were  produced  by  mating  a  Golden 
Laced  Wyandotte  male .  with  an  Andalusian-colored  female. 
A  cockerel  from  this  mating  was  paired  with  Golden  Wyandotte 
females,  and  this  mating  produced  blue-laced  golden-colored 
fowls.  By  mating  Golden  Wyandotte,  Bufi  Cochin,  and  White 
Wyandotte  males  with  blue-laced  females,  pullets  were  pro- 
duced some  of  which  were  blue  laced  and  some  of  which  were 
white  laced  and  all  having  buff -colored  centers  in  the  feathers. 

89.  Description. — The  Violet-Laced  Wyandotte  has  the 
same  general  body  formation  and  color  as  the  White-Laced 
BufE  Wyandotte.  The  chief  difference  in  the  two  varieties  is 
that  on  fowls  of  the  former  the  color  of  the  lacing  is  violet,  and 
on  the  latter  is  white.  The  violet  color  is  difficult  to  establish 
and  maintain.  When  of  a  quality  that  even  borders  on  per- 
fection, these  fowls  are  beautiful. 

90.  Mating. — The  color  in  the  lacing  of  the  Violet-Laced 
Wyandotte,  having  been  produced  from  the  same  matings  that 
produced  the  lacing  in  the  white-laced  variety,  is  difficult  to 
maintain  in  its  purity.  The  best-colored  fowls  should  be 
mated  and  remated  for  the  production  of  good  color  and  mark- 
ings. Whenever  the  offspring  have  too  dark  lacing,  a  female 
of  the  white-laced  buff  variety  can  be  crossed  into  the  strain. 
A  very  small  percentage  of  even  fairly  good-colored  offspring 
will  be  produced  from  the  best  matings.  Size,  shape,  and 
color  must  be  maintained  by  the  careful  selection  of  the  best 
offspring  that  are  produced. 


288  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 


RHODE  ISLAND  RED 


ORIGIN 


91.  The  Rhode  Island  Red  fowls  originated  in  the  farm- 
ing districts  of  Rhode  Island,  near  New  Bedford,  Little  Comp- 
ton,  and  Westport.  Fowls  of  many  kinds  were  brought  to  that 
locality  by  captains  of  sailing  ships  and  were  freely  distributed 
among  the  farms  and  mingled  with  the  domestic  poultry. 
Many  of  these  were  Asiatic  fowls  strong  in  black-red  plumage 
color;  among  them  were  Shanghais,  which  had  almost  red  plu- 
mage; Great  Malays,  which  had  red  plumage;  and  Javas,  as 
they  were  called,  which  also  had  red  plumage.  As  attention 
was  directed  to  these  fowls,  they  were  gradually  added  to  the 
stock  on  all  the  farms,  until  the  black-red  color  showed  its 
supremacy  over  all  other  colors.  Fowls  of  this  kind  were  soon 
scattered  throughout  all  farming  districts  of  Rhode  Island  and 
that  part  of  Massachusetts  adjacent  to  Rhode  Island. 


ROSE-COMB  RHODE  ISLAND  RED 

92.  Origin. — In  the  catalog  of  the  Rhode  Island  Red  Club 
of  America  it  is  stated  that  as  early  as  1860  there  existed  in  and 
about  New  Bedford,  Rhode  Island,  fowls  called  the  Red  Java 
which  had  been  brought  by  whaling  ships  from  Java,  and  that 
they  had  red  plumage  and  rose  combs.  Both  males  and  females 
were  a  dark  red,  difficult  to  describe;  their  shanks  and  toes 
were  reddish  yellow  and  of  medium  length.  From  these  fowls 
it  is  claimed  that  the  present  type  of  Rose- Comb  Rhode 
Island  Red  fowls  has  descended. 

93.  Development. — ^Formerly,  there  were  three  varieties 
of  Rhode  Island  Red  fowls — ^the  rose-comb,  the  single-comb, 
and  the  pea-comb  varieties,  for  all  of  which  recognition  was 


1* 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  289 

claimed.  Those  who  developed  the  rose-comb  variety  clung 
tenaciously  to  breed  characters  and  developed  a  fowl  of  true 
type  having  the  color  described  for  the  breed  and  a  comb  like 
that  of  the  Wyandotte.  Very  little  consideration  was  given 
to  the  development  of  the  pea-comb  variety;  the  quality 
attained  in  the  rose-comb  variety  attracted  the  attention  of 
those  partial  to  low-set  combs,  and  the  result  was  that  the  pea- 
comb  variety  gained  no  fiirther  recognition.  Fanciers  adopted 
either  the  single-comb  or  the  rose-comb  variety  of  Rhode 
Island  Red. 

94.  History. — The  history  of  Rhode  Island  Red  fowls  is 
uncertain  up  to  about  1895.  From  that  time  until  the  meeting 
of  the  Rhode  Island  Red  Club  in  1903,  there  was  considerable 
discussion  concerning  the  style  of  comb,  color,  and  markings 
that  would  be  preferred.  An  application  for  the  admission  of 
the  Single-Comb  Rhode  Island  Red  was  made  and  it  was 
admitted  to  the  American  Standard  of  1904;  and  at  the  meet- 
ing of  the  American  Poultry  Association,  in  Minneapolis,  in 
January,  1905,  the  American  Red,  a  rose-comb  variety,  was 
admitted  to  the  Standard.  This  action  was  rescinded  at  a 
meeting  held  in  Pittsburg,  in  April,  1905;  and  the  Rose-Comb 
variety  was  admitted  as  the  Rose-Comb  Rhode  Island  Red, 
at  a  meeting  of  the  association  held  in  Cincinnati,  in  January, 
1906. 

95.  Description. — The  Standard  description  of  Rhode 
Island  Red  fowls,  as  adopted  by  the  Rhode  Island  Red  Club 
of  America,  places  the  standard  weight  of  cocks  at  8|  pounds; 
cockerels,  at  7|  pounds;  hens  at  6|  pounds;  and  pullets,  at 
5  pounds.  These  fowls  are  described  as  of  medium  size,  and 
closely  resembling  the  Plymouth  Rock  in  form.  The  comb 
most  admired  is  that  of  the  Wyandotte  type ;  an  unusual  devel- 
opment in  breast  and  body  is  encouraged;  and  they  are 
described  as  having  a  square  body  formation;  this  means  that 
a  Rhode  Island  Red  fowl  of  perfect  type  would  be  straight  or 
rather  fiat  in  the  back,  full  in  the  breast  and  abdomen,  and 
nearly  straight  in  under  body.  Color  requirements  for  both 
the  Rose-Comb  and  the  Single-Comb  Rhode  Island  Red  fowls 


290  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

are  told  in  the  description  of  the  Single-Comb  Rhode  Island 
Red. 

96.  Mating. — The  rules  for  the  mating  of  Single-Comb 
Rhode  Island  Red  fowls  apply  also  to  the  rose-comb  variety. 
The  rose  comb  preferred  is  like  that  most  admired  in  the 
Wyandotte.  In  selecting  Rose-Comb  Rhode  Island  Red  fowls 
for  breeding  purposes,  care  should  be  taken  to  see  that  both 
males  and  females  have  combs  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible, 
because  all  fowls  of  this  variety  have  at  least  some  Malay  blood 
in  them,  and  the  lump  comb  of  that  breed  is  likely  to  appear 
in  the  offspring.  Combs  that  are  too  large  are  likely  to  come 
with  offspring  from  the  best  selected  matings.  It  is  always 
wise  to  select  breeding  fowls  with  small  combs  of  the  Wyandotte 
type,  and  small  heads  that  are  round  rather  than  long.  Comb, 
wattles,  ear  lobes,  and  eyes,  and  the  shape  of  the  head  should 
have  marked  consideration  when  selecting  the  fowls  for  the 
breeding  pen. 

SINGLE-COMB  RHODE  ISLAND  RED 

97.  Origin.— The    Single-Comb    Rhode    Island    Red 

fowls  originated  in  the  same  locality  and  from  the  same  general 
crosses  that  produced  the  Rose-Comb  Rhode  Island  Red. 
Although  the  Rose-Comb  Rhode  Island  Red  may  have 
descended  directly  from  rose-comb  Java  fowls,  both  rose  combs 
and  single  combs  were  produced  in  the  offspring. 

98.  Development. — Single-Comb  Rhode  Island  Red 
fowls  have  been  developed  to  a  remarkable  degree.  A  definite 
body  formation  was  decided  on  at  the  time  of  the  admission 
of  the  variety  to  the  American  Standard,  and  the  color  was 
also  fairly  well  defined.  The  fowls  of  this  variety  were  taken 
up  by  a  number  of  expert  fanciers,  and  within  6  years  after 
their  admission  to  the  Standard  of  1904  they  were  developed 
to  a  condition  of  remarkable  perfection. 

99.  History. — The  history  of  the  Single-Comb  Rhode 
Island  Red  fowls  has  been  told  in  connection  with  that  of  the 
Rose-Comb    Rhode    Island    Red.     The    Single-Comb    Rhode 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  291 

Island  Red  has  become  more  popular  and  more  extensively 
bred  and  shown  than  the  Rose-Comb  Rhode  Island  Red. 

100.  Description. — The  Single-Comb  Rhode  Island  Red 
fowls  are  described  as  of  medium  size,  having  a  long  back, 
nearly  horizontal,  with  a  slightly  rising  curve  at  the  neck 
hackle  and  at  the  tail  coverts ;  the  breast,  broad,  deep,  full,  and 
well  rounded;  the  abdomen,  well  developed  and  moderately 
well  feathered;  the  neck,  in  both  males  and  females,  rather 
short;  the  main  tail  feathers,  in  the  males,  of  medium  length 
and  well  spread;  the  sickles,  of  medium  length,  extending  just 
beyond  the  main  tail  feathers;  the  lesser  sickles  and  tail  coverts, 
of  mediiim  length  and  fairly  abundant.  The  tail  of  the  female 
is  not  so  long  as  the  main  tail  feathers  of  the  male ;  neither  have 
cushion  about  the  tail;  the  shanks  and  toes  are  of  medium 
length  and  reddish  yellow ;  the  plumage  of  the  male  is  of  a  rich, 
brilliant  red,  except  where  black  is  specified,  and  free  from 
shafting  or  a  mealy  appearance;  the  depth  of  color  is  more 
prominent  in  the  wing  bows  and  back,  with  but  little  contrast 
between  these  parts  and  the  hackle  or  breast  plumage.  A 
harmonious  blending  of  the  red  in  all  the  parts  is  to  be  desired. 

The  females  have  a  lighter  and  more  even  shade  of  plumage 
color  than  the  males.  In  the  males,  black  markings  will  be 
found  in  the  wing  primaries,  the  lower  web  of  which  is  black 
and  the  upper  red ;  the  lower  web  of  the  secondaries  is  red,  and 
the  upper  web  is  black;  the  flight  coverts  are  black;  the  wing 
bows  and  main  coverts  are  red;  the  main  tail  feathers  are  black 
or  greenish  black;  the  tail  coverts  are  black,  overlaid  with  a 
reddish-bronze  color.  In  the  females,  the  neck  hackle  is  red, 
the  tips  of  the  lower  feathers  being  ticked  with  black ;  the  lower 
web  of  the  primaries  is  black;  the  wing  bows  and  wing  coverts 
are  red;  and  the  tail  is  greenish  black.  The  comb,  face,  wattles, 
ear  lobes,  and  eyes,  in  both  males  and  females,  are  bright  red; 
the  color  in  the  under  plimiage  of  both  is  of  a  lighter  red  than 
the  surface  plumage. 

101.  Mating. — In  mating  Rhode  Island  Red  fowls,  both 
of  the  single-comb  and  the  rose-comb  variety,  the  same  rules 
for  color  mating  must  be  applied.     Shape  in  both  varieties 


292  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

should  be  selected  to  conform  to  Standard  demands.  The 
best  females  for  mating  to  produce  color  will  be  yearling  or 
2-year-old  hens  that  have  held  their  color  up  to  that  time 
and  have  black  markings  and  a  clear,  clean  under  plumage 
a  shade  less  brilliant  than  is  likely  to  be  found  in  pullets.  The 
under  plimiage  must  be  red,  and  the  proper  shade  is  a  less  bril- 
liant red  than  the  surface  color,  but  it  must  be  red  down  to  the 
skin,  with  no  dark  shading.  Pullets  of  perfect  exhibition  qual- 
ity are  suitable  for  breeders;  but  those  lacking  in  form  and 
color  should  not  be  selected. 

Females  having  the  requirements  of  size,  shape,  and  color 
'should  be  mated  to  males  as  near  as  possible  to  perfection.  If 
cockerels  are  used,  they  should  not  show  any  weakness  in  plu- 
mage color.  Cocks  that  were  perfect  as  cockerels  and  which 
hold  their  color  may  be  mated  with  hens  of  known  producing 
quality,  even  if  the  hens  may  lack  in  surface  color.  Neither 
males  nor  females  of  this  breed  lacking  in  color  in  under  plu- 
mage should  be  mated  for  the  production  of  exhibition  off- 
spring. The  best  matings  in  this  variety,  for  the  production 
of  offspring  of  exhibition  quality,  are  composed  of  fowls  that 
have  rich,  brilliant  surface  color,  with  a  softer  shade  of  color 
in  the  under  plumage  that  extends  down  to  the  skin,  with  the 
shafts  of  the  feathers  glistening  with  sheen.  Only  fowls  of  a 
similar  shade  of  even-colored  plumage  should  be  mated  for  the 
production  of  exhibition  offspring.  Parents,  one  of  which  is 
extremely  light  red  and  the  other  of  which  is  dark  red  will  pro- 
duce offspring  with  a  mealy  appearance  in  the  pltmiage.  No 
other  breed  will  need  more  careful  attention  than  Rhode  Island 
Red  fowls,  when  they  are  being  bred  for  the  production  of 
offspring  of  standard  shape  and  color. 

To  be  successful  in  breeding  these  fowls  for  exhibition,  a 
strain  must  be  established  by  the  selection  and  mating  of  the 
best  fowls  obtainable,  and  the  fowls  bred  according  to  the 
mating-chart  system.  Great  care  should  be  taken  when  new 
blood  is  introduced  into  a  strain  of  Rhode  Island  Red  fowls, 
because  no  other  breed  of  fowls  suffers  so  much  from  the  influ- 
ence of  new  blood  from  foreign  blood  lines.  It  is  not  to  be 
expected  that  fowls  of  this  breed  will  all  produce  high  quality 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  293 

in  all  of  their  offspring.  Even  from  the  best  fowls  that  can 
be  selected,  some  of  the  offspring  are  likely  to  be  disappoint- 
ments, and  the  proportion  of  offspring  of  poor  quality  will 
rapidly  increase  when  fowls  of  different  lines  of  breeding  from 
other  flocks  are  introduced  into  a  strain. 


NON-STANDARD  RHODE  ISLAND  RED 


VARIETIES 

102.  Two  varieties  of  Rhode  Island  Red  fowls  have  never 
been  recognized  as  standard  varieties.  One  of  these,  the  P^a- 
Comh  Rhode  Island  Red,  was  mentioned  in  the  origin  of  the 
Rhode  Island  Red  fowls;  the  other,  a  white  variety,  has  been 
known  as  the  White  Rhode  Island  and  now  as  the  Rhode  Island 
White.  

PEA-COMB    RHODE    ISLAND    RED 

103.  Origin. — The    Pea-Comb    Rhode    Island    Red 

fowls  were  produced  by  intermingling  Asiatic  fowls  with  the 
farm  flocks  of  Rhode  Island. 

104.  Description.— The  Pea-Comb  Rhode  Island  Red 
fowls  were  much  like  those  of  the  other  varieties,  except  in  the 
style  of  comb,  which  was  like  that  of  the  Brahma.  Both  males 
and  females  have  more  or  less  black  striping  in  the  neck  hackle. 
They  might  have  been  developed  into  fowls  with  Rhode  Island 
Red  color,  and  the  general  appearance  of  the  Brahma.  Some 
of  them  have  been  crosses  with  Buckeye  fowls  to  establish  a 
greater  depth  of  color  in  the  latter. 


RHODE    ISLAND    WHITE 

105.  A  white-plumaged  variety  of  fowls  of  a  size  and  shape 
similar  to  the  fowls  of  the  Rhode  Island  Red  varieties  hag  been 
.called  the  White  Rhode  Island;  the  variety  is  now  known  as 
Rho^e  Island  White.  Those  who  brought  them  to  public 
notice  claim  that  they  originated  as  white-plumaged  offspring 


294  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

of  Rhode  Island  Red  fowls.  The  Rose-Comb  Rhode  Island 
Red  fowls  are  of  Java  origin,  and  it  is  said  that  there  were  red, 
black,  and  white  varieties  of  these  fowls.  If  this  is  true,  it 
would  not  be  unnatural  for  white  offspring  to  descend  from  a 
line  that  had  in  it  the  blood  of  the  white  Java.  So  few  Rhode 
Island  White  fowls  have  been  bred  as  to  place  them  in  a  class 
with  other  non-standard  varieties  of  fowls. 


DOMINIQUE 

106.  The  DorQinique  is  thought  to  have  been  the  first 
breed  recognized  in  America.  It  was  mentioned  by  the  earliest 
writers,  and  traditions  of  it  have  been  handed  down  for  almost 
200  years.  The  quality  of  these  fowls  has  been  praised  by  a 
great  many  poultrymen,  and  they  have  attracted  attention 
throughout  the  world.  This  variety  has  become  generally 
known  as  American  Dominique. 

The  Dominique  fowls  have  barred  pltimage,  and  they  are 
thought  to  have  been  the  first  American  fowls  that  had  barred 
plumage.  This  kind  of  plumage  has  existed  in  poultry  for  so 
many  years  that  the  date  of  its  origin  is  uncertain.  Fowls  of 
the  same  color  of  barred  plumage  as  the  American  Dominique 
are  called  Cuckoo  in  England,  and  Coucou  in  France  and  other 
countries. 

107.  Origin. — No  authentic  facts  are  known  of  the  origin 
of  the  American  Dominique  fowls.  They  might  have  been 
produced  by  crossing  the  Rose-Comb  White  Dorking  with 
early  Black  Java  fowls.  Fowls  of  a  breed  called  hawk  col- 
ored were  formerly  distributed  throughout  Connecticut;  these 
were  reaUy  American  Dominique  fowls,  and  they  originated 
from  mating  White  Java  with  Black  Java  fowls  such  as  are 
mentioned  in  the  origin  of  Rhode  Island  Red  fowls.  The 
Dominique  breed  originated  in  America,  and  the  fowls  were  at 
one  time  highly  considered  for  egg  production  and  for  market. 

108.  Development. — The  American  Dominique  fowls 
have  never  had  the  careftd  attention  they  deserve.  They 
might  have  been  made  more  beautiful  than  any  of  the  Ham- 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  295 

burg  fowls,  and  they  might  have  been  developed  into  a  most 
desirable  breed  for  egg  production;  but  they  were  superseded 
by  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  and  have  been  neglected. 

109.  History. — Dominique  fowls  were  plentifully  bred 
in  the  United  States  as  early  as  1820.  They  were  seen  on  the 
farms  in  Ohio  prior  to  1850.  It  is  also  stated  that  they  were 
plentiful  in  New  Jersey  in  1820,  and  that  they  were  larger  and 
more  nearly  perfect  in  formation  than  at  the  present.  They 
have  been  recognized  by  the  American  Poultry  Association, 
and  are  described  in  the  Standard. 

110.  Description. — The  American  Dominiques  have  a 
body  formation  resembling  that  of  the  early  type  of  Rose- 
Comb  White  Dorkings;  they  are  of  medium  size;  their  weights 
should  be,  cocks,  8  pounds;  cockerels,  and  hens,  from  6  to 
7  pounds;  pullets,  5  pounds.  The  males  have  long,  sweeping 
tails  like  the  Hamburgs;  the  females  have  the  shape  and  gen- 
eral appearance  of  an  oversized  Spangled  Hamburg  female. 
The  plumage  of  both  males  and  females  is  barred  like  the 
plumage  of  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks,  with  color  and  mark- 
ings less  distinct;  they  have  rose  combs;  yellow  shanks  and 
feet;  the  eyes,  comb,  face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  are  red.  Their 
body  formation,  color,  and  markings  are  all  shown  in  the  color 
illustration. 

111.  Mating.  —  Dominique  fowls  should  be  mated  to 
produce  offspring  with  beautiful  head  points,  including  comb. 
Their  body  formation  should  be  according  to  the  requirements 
of  the  breed.  Plymouth  Rock  form  and  short  sickle  feathers 
are  indications  of  contamination  with  Barred  Plymouth  Rock 
fowls.  All  of  this  should  be  avoided  in  selecting  Dominique 
fowls  for  the  breeding  pen.  Color  and  markings  should  be 
selected  according  to  the  Standard  description,  which  con- 
forms to  the  color  description  of  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rock. 


296  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

JAVA 


ORIGIN 

112.  In  early  days,  many  breeds  were  brought  from  ori- 
ental countries,  and  were  named  according  to  the  locality  from 
which  they  came.  The  Great  Malay  came  from  Malay,  but 
the  Common  Malay  fowl  originated  in  America.  The  Common 
Malay  and  the  great  Java  fowls,  as  then  known,  were  fre- 
quently confused  with  each  other,  but  the  pure  Javas  were 
plainly  Asiatic  fowls.  The  modem  type  of  Java  may  have 
descended  from  the  original  type ;  but  there  are  so  many  counter 
claims  that  it  is  doubftiil  whether  the  origin  of  the  present 
type  of  Java  will  ever  be  known.  It  has  been  admitted  that 
Plymouth  Rock  fowls  originated  in  part  from  this  type  of  fowl. 
Careful  investigation  made  in  1889  disclosed  the  fact  that  the 
Bucks  County,  the  Jersey  Blue,  and  the  Java  fowls,  as  called 
throughout  New  Jersey  and  Long  Island,  were  identical,  except 
in  color.  

BLACK  JAVA 

113.  Origin. — The  Black  Java  fowls  were  made  from 
carefully  selected  fowls  of  the  proper  shape  and  color,  and  from 
breeding,  ctdling,  and  remating  them  until  a  type  of  fowl  was 
developed  which  is  almost  identical  with  the  Jersey  Blue  and 
somewhat  like  the  Plymouth  Rock  fowls. ' 

114.  Development. — Black  Java  fowls  were  developed 
from  many  sources  and  their  improvement  was  not  of  a  kind 
that  would  indicate  a  set  purpose  to  produce  a  definite  type  of 
fowl. 

115.  History. — The  history  of  Black  Java  fowls  indicates 
a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  their  original  type.  They  existed 
in  so  many  localities  and  under  so  many  names  that  there  has 
been  cause  for  disputing  their  having  existed  in  so  definite  a 
character  as  to  warrant  the  statement  that  there  was  but  one 
original  breed.     Fowls  called  Java  existed  in  1840,  but,  like 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  297 

the  early  Hamburg  fowls,  they  have  been  known  by  various 
names,  and  the  names  have  been  applied  to  many  different 
types  of  fowls. 

116.  Description. — In  body  formation,  the  Black  Java 
is  longer  than  the  Plymouth  Rock,  having  a  long,  deep  breast 
that  comes  well  forwards ;  the  abdomen  is  of  moderate  size ;  the 
legs  are  short,  the  shanks  very  strong  and  well  spread,  and 
there  are  no  feathers  on  shanks  and  toes ;  the  color  of  the  shanks 
and  toes  is  almost  black.  The  plumage  throughout,  of  both 
males  and  females,  is  of  a  rich,  glossy  black;  the  face,  comb, 
wattles,  and  ear  lobes  are  red;  the  beak  is  black;  the  eyes  are 
dark  or  hazel.  Occasionally  the  face  is  of  a  shade  called  gypsy 
color  in  game  fowls. 

117.  Mating. — In  selecting  Black  Java  fowls  for  matings 
to  produce  exhibition  offspring,  the  best  fowls  should  be  mated 
and  their  offspring  culled  and  remated,  and  this  method  con- 
tinued as  described  for  the  mating-chart  system.  In  this  way 
a  strain  of  fowls  may  be  estabhshed  that  will  have  Java  type, 
black  plumage,  and  size  that  makes  them  valuable  for  market. 


MOTTLED  JAVA 

118.  Origin. — The  Mottled  Java  fowls  originated  from 
crossing  Black  Java  and  White  Java  fowls,  and  selecting  and 
remating  the  offspring  to  produce  plumage  like  that  of  the 
Houdan  fowls. 

119.  Development. — There  has  been  no  development 
and  but  little  improvement  in  the  Mottled  Java  fowls,  other 
than  what  has  come  from  selecting  fowls  and  mating  them  in 
an  attempt  to  produce  Java  fowls  with  mottled  plumage,  black 
and  white  throughout. 

120.  History. — The  history  of  Mottled  Java  fowls 
includes  a  description  of  form  and  color.  Fowls  having  black 
plumage  were  selected  and  mated  to  those  with  white  plumage; 
offspring  ha^nng  Java  type  were  produced,  and  were  recognized 
as  Mottled  Java  iii  the  Standard  of  1883.     They  have  broken- 


298  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

colored  black-and-white  plumage,  black  predominating.  The 
shanks  and  toes  are  broken-colored,  some  being  of  a  bluish 
shade.  The  most  attractive  shanks  in  the  Mottled  Java  show- 
broken  black  and  white  like  those  in  Ancona  or  Houdan  fowls. 

121.  Mating. — Only  the  best  Mottled  Java  fowls  should 
be  selected  and  mated  for  the  production  of  exhibition  offspring. 
To  prevent  too  much  white  from  appearing  in  the  pliimage  of 
the  offspring,  males  in  which  black  predominates  can  be  used. 
The  best  offspring  are  usually  obtained  from  mating  males 
much  too  dark  for  exhibition  with  females  in  some  of  which 
black  predominates,  with  others  having  an  even  distribution  of 
color;  and  with  some  too  light  for  exhibition.  From  matings 
of  this  kind,  both  males  and  females  having  the  proper  distri- 
bution of  color  will  come.  The  beauty  of  the  Java  male 
depends  on  its  perfect  type  and  well-developed  tail  plumage. 


WHITE  JAVA 

122.  White  fowls  of  the  Java  type  have  existed  since  the 
earliest  records  of  the  breed.  The  modern  type  of  White  Java 
has  been  developed  by  selecting  and  mating  the  best  white  fowls 
of  the  breed.  The  White  Java  was  admitted  to  the  Standard 
at  the  Indianapolis  meeting  of  1888,  at  which  time  the  fowls 
were  condemned  by  some  and  lauded  by  others.  When 
admitted  to  the  Standard,  yellow  shanks  disqualified  them, 
and  they  were  required  to  have  willow-colored  shanks  and  to 
be  yellow  on  the  soles  of  the  feet.  They  were  never  popular 
and  were  dropped  from  the  Standard  of  1898.  No  white  fowls 
that  have  green  or  willow-colored  shanks  seem  to  have  become 
popular. 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  299 


JERSEY  BLUE 

123.  Origin. — ;The  origin  of  the  Jersey  Blue  fowls  has 
been  accredited  to  the  state  of  New  Jersey.  Prior  to  1850 
they  were  described  as  having  about  the  same  characters  as 
the  Java  fowls.  It  was  claimed  that  they  were  imported  stock, 
but  this  has  never  been  established;  later,  it  was  stated  that 
they  had  originated  from  a  cross  of  Great  Malay  and  Black 
Java  fowls.  This  does  not  seem  a  probable  theory;  they  were 
more  likely  to  have  originated  from  intermingling  three  varie- 
ties, black,  white,  and  red  Java  fowls.  They  were  described 
as  fowls  of  large  size,  having  long  legs,  with  plumage  of  a  bluish 
shade.  A  pair  of  full-grown  fowls  of  this  breed  have  been 
known  to  weigh  from  12  to  16  pounds.  Fowls  of  this  kind 
wotild  come  from  crossing  Dark  Brahma  with  Black  Spanish 
fowls,  or  pure  white  fowls  with  pure  black  fowls.  The  modern 
type  of  Jersey  Blue  came  from  the  same  soiu-ce  as  the  Black 
Java. 

124.  Development. — No  definite  information  can  be 
gained  concerning  the  early  development  of  the  Jersey  Blue 
fowls.  The  modem  Jersey  Blue  fowls,  as  admitted  to  the 
Standard,  were  produced  by  selecting  blue-plumaged  fowls  of 
Java  type  and  mating  them  for  size,  shape,  and  color. 

125.  History. — ^A  few  fanciers  who  were  thoroughly 
imbued  with  the  sterling  qualities  of  the  Jersey  Blue  fowls 
selected  and  mated  them  for  size,  shape,  and  color,  until  a 
fowl  was  produced  of  Java  type  and  plumage  color  like  the 
Andalusian.  They  were  admitted  to  the  American  Standard 
of  1881,  but  since  that  time  they  have  been  neglected  and  were 
finally  dropped  from  the  Standard. 

126.  Description. — ^When  admitted  to  the  American 
Standard,  the  weight  requirements  for  the  Jersey  Blue  fowls 
were:  Cocks,  10  pounds;  cockerels,  7  pounds;  hens,  8  pounds; 
pullets,  5  pounds.     They  were  described  as  fowls  of  mediuiii 


300  AMERICAN  FOWLS  §  5 

size  and  plump  formation;  the  plumage  was  a  light  shade  of 
blue,  each  feather  being  laced  with  a  darker  shade  of  the  same 
color.  The  shanks  and  toes  were  dark  blue  or  slate.  The 
best  known  strain  of  Jersey  Blue  fowls  existing  in  1900  con- 
sisted of  fowls  of  large  size;  some  of  the  mature  cocks  weighed 
14  pounds;  hens,  10  pounds;  pullets  and  cockerels,  from  7  to 
9  pounds.  The  plumage  was  light  blue,  laced  with  a  darker 
shade;  the  top  body  color  of  the  males  was  a  very  dark  blue, 
approaching  black,  glistening  with  sheen;  the  shanks  and  toes 
were  dark.  Their  eggs  were  of  unusual  size  and  had  tinted 
shells,  proving  their  Asiatic  origin. 

127.  Mating. — The  best  Jersey  Blue  fowls  should  be 
mated  for  the  production  of  offspring  of  a  Plymouth  Rock- 
Asiatic  type  that  will  equal  the  weights  described  for  them  and 
have  plumage  like  the  Blue  Andalusians.  To  have  them  equal 
to  the  best  that  were  bred  in  former  days  will  require  continued 
and  careful  selection  of  fowls  that  conform  to  the  proper  breed 
characters.  These  should  be  mated  and  the  offspring  care- 
fully culled  and  mated  imtil  a  fowl  of  the  proper  type  and 
plumage  color  has  been  produced. 


BUCKEYE 

128.  Origin  and  Development. — The  Buckeye  fowls 
were  originated  by  Mrs.  Nettie  Metcalf,  of  Ohio,  by  mingling 
Cornish,  or  Indian,  Game,  American,  Asiatic,  and  Black- 
Breasted  Red  Game  fowls.  The  object  of  this  cross-breeding 
was  to  produce  a  fowl  that  would  grow  quickly  into  large  size, 
that  would  produce  many  eggs,  and  that  would  be  attractive 
for  exhibition.  From  the  offspring  of  these  matings  fowls  that 
were  of  American  type  and  large  size  and  that  had  red  plumage 
and  pea  combs  were  selected  and  mated.  The  pea  comb  came 
from  the  influence  of  the  Brahma  and  of  the  Aseel  through  the 
Indian  Game  fowls. 

The  development  of  the  Buckeye  fowls  was  under  the  guid- 
ance of  Mrs.  Metcalf  up  to  the  time  they  were  admitted  to 
the  Standard,  and  after  this  they  were  bred  by  a  few  fanciers, 


§  5  AMERICAN  FOWLS  301 

but  they  have  not  been  developed  into  a  type  that  has  attracted 
favorable  attention. 

129.  History. — The  Buckeye  fowls  were  admitted  to  the 
American  Standard  of  1905.  The  revision  committee  of  1908 
advised  that  they  be  dropped  from  the  Standard,  but  this  was 
voted  down  at  the  meeting  in  Niagara,  New  York,  in  1909. 

130.  Description. — The  Pea-Comb  Buckeye  fowls  are  of 
medium  size,  and  have  the  general  appearance  that  would  be 
likely  to  come  from  crossing  Cornish,  or  Indian,  Game  with 
Rhode  Island  Red  fowls.  They  are  broad  and  strong  across 
the  shoiilders;  the  back  is  much  like  the  back  of  the  Rhode 
Island  Red ;  the  tail  of  the  males  is  rather  short  and  formed  like 
the  tail  of  a  Plymouth  Rock  male;  the  tail  and  back  of  the 
females  are  like  those  of  a  Java ;  the  shanks  and  toes  are  yellow 
or  reddish  yellow ;  the  plumage  is  red  throughout ;  the  top  color 
of  the  male  is  a  rich  red  or  garnet,  having  a  brilliant  gloss ;  the 
breast  and  body  color  is  dark  red;  the  wing  flights  and  main 
tail  feathers  are  usually  marked  with  black ;  the  under  plumage 
is  red  of  a  lighter  shade  than  the  surface  color;  a  buff,  yeUow, 
or  lighter  shade  of  color  of  the  under  pliomage  is  more  desirable. 
In  weight,  they  should  equal  the  Pl5nTiouth  Rocks.  The 
Standard  demand  for  weight  is  slightly  less  than  that  of  Plym- 
outh Rocks. 

131.  Mating. — Both  male  and  female  Buckeye  fowls  of  a 
type  that  will  conform  to  Standard  demands  should  be  selected, 
mated,  and  remated  for  the  production  of  offspring  that  will 
be  pliimp  in  breast  and  body;  that  will  have  legs  of  medium 
length,  short  necks,  and  the  least  amount  of  waste  in  their 
makeup.  Long  necks,  legs,  and  shanks  are  to  be  avoided. 
The  Malay  type  should  be  bred  out  of  the  flock.  Brahma- 
shaped  heads  with  pea  combs  and  an  even  shade  of  red  through- 
out should  be  closely  adhered  to,  in  order  to  avoid  a  loss  of  true 
type  and  a  drifting  into  Indian  Game  formation. 


ASIATIC  FOWLS 


ORIGIN 

1.  Although  authorities  still  argue  as  to  whether  domestic 
fowls  descended  from  one  or  more  sources,  it  is  generally 
accepted  as  a  fact  that  domestic  fowls  originated  in  Persia 
and  other  parts  of  the  country  adjacent  to  the  Red  Sea,  and 
that  from  there  they  were  distributed  eastwards  into  India 
and  the  eastern  part  of  Asia,  including  Japan  and  the  islands 
of  the  Asiatic  Archipelago. 

Early  writings  contain  accounts  of  almost  continual  strug- 
gles between  tribes  for  the  possession  of  one  another's  herds, 
and  a  theory  that  has  been  advanced  to  account  for  the  breeds 
of  fowls  of  large  size  in  China  is  that  in  these  struggles  the 
marauders  seized  and  carried  away  the  largest  fowls,  because, 
on  account  of  their  small  wings  and  slow  movement,  they  were 
easier  to  secure  than  the  lighter  fowls.  The  fowls  that  were 
thus  secured  were  carried  into  China  and  other  parts  of  East- 
em  Asia,  where  they  remained  hidden  for  many  centuries. 

The  large  fowls  that  were  thus  carried  into  Eastern  Asia 
did  not  get  distributed  further  until  they  were  carried  by 
trading  ships  to  various  other  parts  of  the  world.  The  first 
record  of  them  in  Western  civilized  countries  was  not  made 
until  1816,  although,  of  coiirse,  it  is  impossible  to  say  just 
when  the  first  were  carried  out  of  China.  The  first  fowls 
brought  from  the  Orient  were  of  the  commoner  kinds,  and 
were  brought  in  trading  ships  as  part  of  the  food  supply  for 
the  trip.  Those  that  were  not  eaten  were  disposed  of  at  the 
ports  at  which  the  cargoes  of  the  ships  were  unloaded.     This 

303 


304  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §  6 

created  a  demand  for  Asiatic  fowls,  and  better  kinds  were 
brought  later. 

The  Chittagongs,  or  Malays,  were  mentioned  by  Moubray 
in  1816,  but  not  until  after  1845  are  those  that  had  pea  combs 
and  feathered  shanks  spoken  of.  When  the  ports  of  China 
were  opened  the  Chittagongs  were  distributed.  They  were 
large  fowls  with  single  combs,  and  without  feathering  on 
their  shanks;  these  were  tmdoubtedly  the  kind  of  fowls  first 
mentioned  by  Bumham  and  others.  Following  these  came 
Shanghais  and  Brahmapootras,  which  were  the  ancestors  of 
the  Brahmas. 

The  fowls  that  have  been  regarded  by  scientists  as  truly 
Asiatic  are  the  Brahmas,  Cochins,  Langshans,  Malays,  Javas, 
and  Black  Sumatras.  The  Yokohama,  or  long-tailed  Phoenix 
fowl,  and  Japanese  and  other  bantams  are  not  classed  as  Asiatic 
fowls,  because  they  are  ornamental  and  not  useful.  A  classi- 
fication made  by  poultry  fanciers  is  that  only  Brahmas,  Cochins, 
and  Langshans  are  Asiatics ;  the  Java  is  classed  as  an  American 
variety;  and  the  Malay,  the  Aseel,  and  the  Black  Sumatra  are 
classed  as  Oriental  game  fowls.  In  considering  them  as  stand- 
ard-bred poultry,  Brahma,  Cochin,  and  Langshan  fowls  will  be 
classed  as  Asiatic,  and  are  treated  in  this  Section  in  the  order 
in  which  they  are  named. 

BRAHMA 


ORIGIN,    DEVELOPMENT,    DESCRIPTION,    AND 
BREED  CHARACTERS 

2.  Origin. — The  original  Braliina  fowls  came  from  the 
Brahmapootra  districts  of  India.  Some  with  pea  combs  were 
brought  to  the  port  of  New  York  in  1846.  These  differed 
from  those  of  previous  importations  in  the  formation  of  the 
comb  and  the  color  of  the  shanks  and  skin.  These  fowls  were 
taken  into  Connecticut,  and  from  them  was  bred  the  founda- 
tion stock  of  the  present  type  of  Brahma. 

3.  Development. — Brahmas  with  pea  combs  were  bred 
throughout  New  England  from  1850  to  1865.     During  this 


§6 


ASIATIC  FOWLS 


305 


period  they  were  greatly  improved,  and  offspring  of  both  light 
and  dark  plumage  were  produced.  Those  having  the  clearest 
plumage  color  were  called  Light  or  Gray  Shanghais;  those  of 
a  darker  shade  were  called  Dark  or  Dark  Gray  Shanghais. 
These  were  not  separated  into  distinct  classes  until  they  were 
known  as  Light  Brahmas  and  Dark  Brahmas. 

4.  Description. — The  earliest  description  of  Brahmas 
was  written  in  1853,  and  they  were  illustrated  by  Harrison 
Weir;  a  pair  of  these  is  shown  in  Fig.  1.     In  this  illustration, 


"^^i^^z-^^fe 


the  female  has  a  low-set  single  comb;  the  male  has  an  indica- 
tion of  what  might  be  called  a  pea  comb.  Following  the  adop- 
tion of  the  pea  comb  in  all  Brahmas,  fowls  having  this  type  of 
comb  were  shown  in  1866  and  were  illustrated  by  Mr.  Weir. 
A  copy  of  this  illustration  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  Those  illustrated 
in  Fig.  1  were  of  the  type  that  originated  in  Connecticut  from 
the  fowls  with  pea  combs  that  came  in  1846,  and  from  that 
time  to  the  present  that  type  of  Brahma  has  been  accepted 
and  improved  until  the  adoption  of  their  description  in  the 
American  Standard  of  1875. 


306 


ASIATIC  FOWLS 


5.  Breed  Characters. — Breed  characters  were  lacking  in 
the  early  importations  of  fowls  from  India.  These  fowls  were 
of  various  forms  and  colors,  their  distinctions  being  in  the  type 


of  comb,  in  yeUow  shanks  and  skin,  and  in  shank  and  toe 
feathering.  The  first  distinctive  Brahma  type  appeared  in 
1860  and  is  shown  in  Fig.  2. 


LIGHT  BRAHMA 


IMPROVEMENT,    HISTORY,    AND    DESCRIPTION 

6.  The  Liglit  Bralima  was  recognized  as  a  variety  of  the 
breed  in  the  original  Standard  of  1867.  This  may  be  accepted 
as  proof  that  breed  characters  had  been  established  and  that 
color  and  markings  were  of  a  quahty  that  coidd  be  described. 
The  Light  Brahmas  of  1869  were  attractive  fowls,  but  their 


307 


308  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §  6 

exhibition  qualities  had  been  so  greatly  improved  from  that 
time  to  1885  as  to  make  them  appear  as  fowls  of  advanced 
type  and  improved  beauty  in  comparison  with  those  of  former 
days. 

7.  Improvemeiit. — No  other  fowls  except  the  Cochins 
have  been  so  changed  and  improved  as  the  Light  Brahmas. 
The  American  type  of  Brahma  has  been  bred  for  the  combined 
qualities  of  egg  production,  market  poultry,  and  beauty  for 
exhibition.  The  English  fanciers  have  changed  the  Brahmas 
into  fowls  of  form  and  feather.  The  type  of  Brahma  most 
admired  in  England  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  This  illustration  is 
made  from  a  pen  sketch  by  Mr.  Ludlow,  an  eminent  English 
artist.  The  fowls  have  vulture  hocks,  and  are  so  heavily 
feathered  throughout,  including  stiff  leg  and  toe  feathering,  as 
to  make  them  almost  valueless  as  utility  poultry.  During 
recent  years,  more  attention  has  been  given,  in  America,  to 
profuse  feathering  and  exquisite  markings  on  Brahmas. 
Whether  or  not  these  changes  can  be  considered  as  improve- 
ments time  only  can  tell. 

8.  History. — The  Light  Brahma  was  originated  by  Amer- 
ican poultrymen,  between  1845  and  1860,  from  fowls  that  were 
brought  from  Lakhimpur,  India,  to  the  port  of  New  York. 
Offspring  from  these  fowls  were  exhibited  by  Virgil  Cornish 
in  Boston,  in  1850.  He  claimed  that  they  were  different  from 
all  other  fowls  that  had  been  shown  up  to  that  time.  A  com- 
mittee was  appointed  to  consider  the  matter,  and  it  was  decided 
that  the  fowls  should  be  named  after  the  locality  from  which 
they  originated;  thus  they  were  named  Brahmapootra,  this 
being  the  name  of  the  river  near  which  the  fowls  are  said  to 
have  originated. 

9.  Description. — In  contour.  Light  Brahma  fowls  are 
unlike  those  of  any  other  breed.  Although  tall,  they  are  of 
such  symmetrical  proportions  as  to  be  attractive.  In  the 
Standard  they  are  described  as  having  considerable  length  in 
every  section.  The  head  of  the  Brahma  is  like  the  head  of 
the  Malay,  the  beauty  consisting  in  the  length  and  breadth 
of  the  skull,  which  has  a  massive  appearance  and  a  pronounced 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  309 

juncture  where  it  articiilates  with  the  neck.  The  female, 
frequently  has  a  dewlap  growing  beneath  her  beak,  and  this, 
which  has  a  slight  inclination  to  lean  down  and  forwards, 
somewhat  as  in  the  Cochin,  adds  to  her  beauty. 

The  neck  of  the  Light  Brahma  is  beautiftdly  arched  and 
covered  with  flowing  hackle  feathers,  which  extend  down  over 
the  shoulders,  forming  a  beautiful  covering  of  black  and  white. 
In  the  male,  the  hackle  feathers  are  very  long;  the  black  stripe 
in  the  center  of  the  feather  is  very  distinct  and  extends  up 
more  than  one-half  the  length  of  the  feather,  which  is  edged 
with  white,  the  black  stripe  ending  just  inside  of  the  white 
edging.  Supplementary  lacing  about  the  hackle  feathers  is 
very  objectionable.  The  neck  hackle  of  the  female  differs 
from  that  of  other  fowls  in  that  the  lower  hackle  feathers  are 
large  and  round,  the  black  center  being  almost  an  inch  wide 
in  some  of  the  feathers,  each  feather  being  laced  about  with 
pure  white.  The  body  color,  including  back,  breast,  and  fluff, 
of  both  males  and  females,  is  white.  The  purer  and  clearer 
they  are  from  foreign  color,  the  more  beautiful  the  fowls  will 
be.  Although  this  is  true,  there  is  a  strong  inclination  to 
encourage  dark  striping  in  the  back  of  the  male,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  4,  and  in  some  localities  fanciers  are  not  averse  to  black 
spots  in  the  back  plumage  of  the  female.  Both  males  and 
females  have  naturally  a  collar  of  black  feathers  about  the 
neck  and  iinder  the  hackle;  these  are  called  a  cape. 

In  the  males,  the  outer  surface  of  the  wings  is  white;  the 
wing  fronts  are  shaded  with  black;  the  flights  are  black,  or 
black  edged  with  white,  and  the  secondaries  are  black  and  white. 
The  white  is  so  located  about  the  lower  web  of  these  feathers 
as  to  form  a  white  wing  bay  when  the  wing  is  folded.  The 
tail  is  a  rich,  brilliant  black;  the  sickles  are  of  mediimi  length 
and  richly  glossed  with  sheen;  the  tail  coverts  are  long  and 
flowing,  and  are  a  rich,  glossy  black;  the  lesser  coverts  are 
edged  with  white.  The  shanks  and  toes  of  both  males  and 
females  shoiild  be  yellow,  and  well  covered  with  white  feathers; 
black  may  extend  down  into  the  toe  feathering,  but  the  less 
of  black  visible  in  shank  and  middle  toe  feathering  the  more 
attractive  the  fowl  will  be.     The  face,   comb,  wattles,  and 


310 


ASIATIC  FOWLS 


§6 


ear  lobes  of  both  males  and  females  should  be  rich  red;  eyes, 
red;  skin,  rich  yellow;  beak,  yellow,  with  a  stripe  of  dark  color 
on  the  upper  surface.  The  color  of  the  under  plumage  may  be 
white,  bluish  white,  or  slate  color.  For  exhibition,  the  nearer 
white  the  under  plumage,  the  more  attractive  the  fowl  will  be, 
provided  the  surface  plumage  is  pure  white  and  the  markings 
on  the  neck,  wing,  and  tail  are  as  rich  as  can  be  produced  in 
Light  Brahmas. 

In  the  females,  the  tail  is  black,  with  the  uppermost  feathers 
edged  with  white ;  the  tail  coverts  are  black,  edged  with  white, 


and  occasionally  the  black  centers  in  the  coverts  are  more  than 
an  inch  in  breadth.  The  outer  surface  of  the  wings  is  white; 
the  flights  are  black  and  white ;  solid  black  flights  are  prefer- 
able when  they  can  be  obtained  without  destroying  the  sur- 
face color.  The  secondaries  should  be  black  and  white,  the 
white  forming  a  perfect  wing  bay  when  the  wing  is  folded. 
Standard  weights  for  Light  Brahmas  are:  Cocks,  12  pounds; 
cockerels  and  hens,  9  pounds;  pullets,  8  pounds. 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  311 

MATING    OF    LIGHT    BRAHMAS 

10.  In  handling  poultry  for  producing  exhibition  fowls, 
the  poultryman  must  endeavor  to  produce  them  of  such  beauti- 
ful form  and  color  as  to  have  them  equal  to  the  best  in  the 
world.  To  do  this,  he  must  use,  for  breeding  purposes,  only 
fowls  that  have  the  combined  qualifications  of  the  highest  class 
and  have  been  bred  in  line  from  those  which  have  produced 
the  best  exhibition  offspring.  These  fowls  must  also  have  pro- 
ducing quaHties  and  have  been  bred  in  line  long  enough  to 
have  become  dominant  in  their  influence  over  others  of  their 
own  kind.  A  definition  of  a  producing  fowl  and  an  explana- 
tion of  the  dominating  influence  of  a  producing  female  has 
been  given  in  Standard-Bred  Poultry,  Part  2.  Brahmas  of 
both  varieties  are  largely  influenced  through  the  females.  But 
little  success  can  be  achieved  in  producing  exhibition  Brahmas 
unless  the  quality  of  the  females  is  of  a  kind  that  meets  the 
requirements  of  a  perfect  Brahma,  and  it  is  also  necessary  that 
the  hens  have  producing  power. 

Brahma  hens  used  for  breeding  must  be  large  and  as  perfect 
as  possible  in  breed  characters;  plimiage  color  and  mark- 
ings should  be  perfect,  with  the  under-plumage  color  accord- 
ing to  the  necessities  of  the  matings.  If  pure  white  surface 
color  of  breast,  back,  and  body  is  desirable,  less  strength  of 
color  in  the  under  plumage  of  the  female  will  be  needed.  Males 
for  all  matings  must  be  of  perfect  Brahma  type;  surface  color, 
luider-plumage  color,  and  markings  to  be  selected  in  conformity 
with  the  results  desired.  Clean,  clear  back  and  body  color 
in  females,  and  striping  in  back  and  saddle  of  males,  wiU  sel- 
dom if  ever  both  be  produced  from  a  single  mating.  The  most 
beautifully  marked  Brahmas  are  produced  from  double 
matings — ^males  from  one  hen  and  females  from  another. 
The  production  of  good  offspring  of  both  sexes  from  a  single 
mating  may  be  accomplished  provided  the  individuals  used 
in  the  mating  are  of  the  proper  kind. 

11,  Mating  for  Shape. — ^When  choosing  Brahmas  for 
the  breeding  pen,  careful  attention  must  be  given  to  selecting 


312  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §  6 

the  shape,  and  in  doing  this  the  qualities  most  difficult  to 
reproduce  should  receive  the  greatest  consideration.  Head 
points  are  of  prime  importance,  because  of  the  fact  that  the 
heads  of  Brahmas  are  quite  unlike  those  of  other  fowls.  Both 
males  and  females  should  have  broad,  full  skulls,  and  per- 
fectly shaped  combs.  The  exhibition  quality  of  Brahmas 
depends  largely  on  their  stately  appearance;  they  must  stand 
well  on  their  feet,  and,  although  the  carriage  should  be  rather 
upright  as  compared  with  that  of  Cochins,  it  should  be  less 
so  in  comparison  with  that  of  fowls  of  American  breeds.  The 
back  of  the  Brahma  is  of  great  importance;  it  should  be  broad 
at  the  shoulders;  across  the  back,  and  at  the  junctiu'e  of  the 
tail  and  the  back;  the  breadth  shoiild  taper  a  little  toward 
the  tail,  but  not  enough  to  give  a  narrow 
back  formation.  The  sweep  from  the 
shoulders  to  the  tail,  in  both  males  and 
females,  can  best  be  described  by  referring 
to  the  color  illustrations  of  both  Light  and 
Dark  Brahmas.  The  tail  of  the  female 
should  be  broad  at  the  base  and  have  an 
oval  formation  to  the  upper  portion  of  the 
tail,  as  shown  in  Fig.  5.  The  space  be- 
FiG-  5  tween  the  main  tail   feathers   should  be 

well  filled  with  soft,  loose  plimiage.  The  tail  formation  in  both 
males  and  females  widens  out  the  back  to  the  base  of  the  tail. 
Length  and  depth  of  body ;  width  between  the  thighs ;  broad, 
full  breast  formation,  which  rounds  up  well  to  the  throat;  and 
a  prominent  abdomen,  should  be  present  in  both  males  and 
females  used  in  the  breeding  pen.  Deficiency  in  any  of  these 
characters,  in  either  the  male  or  the  female,  will  prevent  the 
production  of  offspring  having  proper  Brahma  characters. 
The  size  of  the  Brahma  depends  largely  on  that  of  the  parent 
stock.  Large,  roomy  hens,  are  the  kind  from  which  quality 
is  produced.  A  vain  attempt  will  be  made  by  those  who  try 
to  produce  Brahmas  of  the  proper  type  from  parents  that  lack 
true  breed  characters.  Abnormal  length  of  neck,  thighs,  or 
shanks,  a  narrow  back  and  tail,  or  an  extended  appearance 
in  any  part  of  the  fowl  are  defects  that  should  be  avoided  in 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  313 

fowls  selected  for  the  breeding  pen.  To  produce  offspring 
of  large  size  and  correct  proportions,  the  parent  stock  must 
possess  these  characters  in  the  highest  degree  of  excellence. 

Hens  that  are  made  prominent  in  breast  and  body  by  being 
very  fat  do  not  meet  the  requirements  of  proper  shape.  They 
must  have  these  qualities  reasonably  prominent  in  natural 
formation  and  they  must  be  of  proper  size  without  being 
unduly  fat.  Size  must  be  selected  by  appearance  and  not  by 
weight.  The  inclination  to  cultivate  a  slight  bending  at  the 
hock  joint  should  be  resisted,  as  there  must  not  be  a  tendency 
in  the  Brahmas  as  in  the  Cochins  to  lean  downwards  and 
forwards.  Although  a  reasonable  quantity  of  feathers  may  be 
encouraged  in  Brahmas,  there  should  not  be  such  an  excess 
as  to  give  them  a  fluffy  appearance,  nor  shoiild  there  be  the 
least  inclination  toward  heavy  hock  feathering  in  either  males 
or  females,  or  so  much  feathering  about  these  parts  as  to  hide 
the  junctiore  of  leg  and  toe  feathering  with  the  feathering  of 
the  thighs. 

The  color  illustration  of  Light  Brahmas  was  made  from 
living  specimens  and  shows  the  best  type  of  Brahma  for  all 
purposes.  The  pair  in  the  foreground  are  of  proper  form  and 
color;  those  in  the  background  show  the  extremely  dark  mark- 
ings. The  English  type  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.  Full-feathered 
Brahmas,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  are  a  compromise 
between  the  two. 

12.  Mating  for  Color. — Both  shape  and  color  are  of  such 
importance  in  Brahmas  as  to  make  necessary  a  careful  descrip- 
tion of  how  both  are  produced.  One  shape  description  will 
answer  for  both  varieties,  but  there  is  such  a  difference  in 
color  between  the  varieties  as  to  make  necessary  separate 
descriptions  of  the  matings  for  the  production  of  Light  and  of 
Dark  Brahma  color.  All  breeds  and  varieties  having  color 
and  markings  the  same  as  Light  Brahmas  can  be  improved 
through  following  the  rules  of  mating  for  color  given  for  Light 
Brahmas;.  and  all  fowls  having  color  and  markings  like  the 
dark  variety  will  be  improved  through  following  the  rules 
for  color  matings  for  Dark  Brahmas. 


314  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §  6 

13.  Standard  Mating. — The  pairing  of  fowls  of  any  breed 
or  variety  to  produce  offspring  of  fine  exhibition  quahty  of  both 
sexes  from  one  mating  is  known  as  standard  mating.  This 
method  of  mating  is  erroneously  referred  to  as  single  mating. 
The  term  standard  mating,  however,  is  to  be  preferred  from 
the  fact  that  from  such  matings  fowls  having  qualities  demanded 
by  the  Standard  may  be  produced.  Shape,  as  described,  must 
be  selected  for  all  matings,  for  without  proper  shape,  good 
Brahmas  cannot  be  produced.  Color,  to  reproduce  well,  must 
be  bred  into  the  blood,  A  fowl  of  beautiful  color  but  of  uncer- 
tain breeding  carmot  be  depended  on  to  produce  offspring  with 
color  equal  to  or  better  than  itself.  The  importance  of  line 
breeding  and  of  establishing  a  strain  has  been  fiilly  described. 
This  method  of  breeding  must  be  followed  in  Brahmas  and 
blood  Hnes  be  well  established  or  success  will  not  follow. 
Cockerels  and  pullets  lose  color  as  they  grow  older.  The 
best  color  for  breeding  purposes  will  usually  be  found  in  fowls 
in  their  second  year.  Both  cockerels  and  piillets  too  dark  for 
exhibition  may  molt  out  and  have  beautifiil  plimiage  for  exhibi- 
tion in  their  second  breeding  season.  These  conditions  must 
be  well  considered  in  selecting  fowls  for  the  breeding  pen. 

Yearlings  or  2-year-old  hens  that  have  proper  color  and 
markings  for  exhibition  are  likely  to  produce  satisfactory 
offspring  when  mated  with  cockerels  that  have  Brahma  type 
and  proper  color  and  markings.  Mature  males  which  were 
darker  than  normal  when  they  were  cockerels  will  answer 
for  mating  with  pullets  that  were  fit  for  exhibition.  These 
same  pullets  are  apt  to  molt  lighter  as  hens,  and  shoiild,  if 
this  occurs,  be  mated  with  dark  cockerels.  This  manner  of 
mating  maintains  color  of  plumage  and  prevents  to  a  con- 
siderable extent  the  offspring  from  becoming  lighter  in  plumage 
each  season.  Dark  males  mated  with  females,  either  hens 
or  pullets,  which  are  too  dark  for  exhibition,  are  apt  to  pro- 
duce offspring  that  will  have  more  color  than  is  demanded 
by  the  Standard.  Males  and  females  of  this  character  are 
shown  in  the  backgroimd  of  the  color  illustration  of  Light 
Brahmas.  The  striping  in  the  saddle  of  the  males  and  a  slight 
marking  of  black  in  the  back  of  the  females  have  become  more 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  315 

or  less  popular  in  some  localities.  This  manner  of  marking 
can  be  produced  by  mating  males  and  females  both  of  which 
have  an  excess  of  black  in  neck,  wing,  and  saddle  plumage. 

Color  of  the  under  plimiage  is  of  importance,  and  it  controls 
to  a  certain  extent  the  shade  of  color  of  the  surface  plumage. 
Slate  or  blue  tint  in  the  under  plimiage  of  the  back  and 
body  of  females  is  needed  for  strengthening  the  surface  color 
in  offspring.  Whenever  the  shade  of  the  under  plumage  is 
smutted  with  black,  dark-colored  siu-face  plumage  will  result. 
The  most  success  is  likely  to  follow  standard  matings  when 
the  females  have  a  slaty-blue  tint  in  the  imder  plimiage;  a  per- 
fectly white  surface  color;  standard  color  in  the  neck,  saddle, 
and  tail  feathers;  and  a  predominance  of  black  in  the  flights. 
Females  of  this  kind,  mated  with  males  that  conform  in  color 
to  the  demands  of  the  Standard,  are  likely  to  produce  beauti- 
ful surface  plumage  that  will  be  marked  as  described  in  the 
Standard.  The  use  of  females  that  have  black  or  smut  in 
the  tmder  plumage  is  likely  to  result  in  black  spots  in  the  backs 
of  the  females  and  dark  shadings  in  the  saddles  of  the  cockerels. 
The  best  offspring  will  be  obtained  from  standard  matings 
in  which  females  of  proper  shape  and  color  are  used,  they  having 
a  slaty-blue  color  in  the  imder  plimiage  and  the  males  con- 
forming in  every  way  to  Standard  demands. 

White  surface  color  is  likely  to  result  from  dark  under  plu- 
mage, but  the  web  of  the  feathers  in  the  back  of  the  offspring 
may  be  marred  with  black.  Cream  color  or  yellow  shading 
may  come  in  the  plimiage  of  offspring  the  parents  of  which 
have  white  under  plumage.  The  blue  tinge  in  the  under  plu- 
mage of  females  clears  the  surface  plumage  of  offspring  bred 
from  them.  Fowls  that  have  pure  white  surface  color  in 
breast  and  body,  the  white  extending  down  to  the  skin;  with 
beautiful,  white  plumage;  proper  markings  in  hackle,  wings, 
and  about  the  tail,  are  most  difficult  to  produce,  but  most 
attractive.  Cream  color  or  yellow  in  the  plumage  are  defects 
that  should  be  bred  out  of  the  offspring.  The  black  stripe  in 
the  hackle  of  males  should  continue  without  a  break  from 
the  point  of  the  feather  up  more  than  half  its  length.  The 
farther  up  it  extends  without  a  break,  the  more  attractive  it 


316  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §  6 

will  be.  Males  that  have  a  break  in  the  black  of  hackle 
feathers  are  apt  to  prove  undesirable  as  breeding  stock.  If 
there  is  much  of  this,  such  males  should  be  used  in  the  breed- 
ing pen  only  when  better  males  cannot  be  obtained.  In 
mating,  select  rather  from  blood  lines  than  from  prize  winners ; 
prize  winners  may  be  selected  for  breeding  purposes  only  when 
their  blood  lines  are  known  to  be  true.  Pullets  having  solid 
black  flights  may  produce  offspring  desirable  for  exhibition 
purposes.  Hens  that  have  solid  black  flights,  mated  to  males 
with  black  fhghts,  usually  produce  dark-colored  offspring. 
Flights,  in  both  males  and  females,  that  show  a  small  per- 
centage of  white,  exercise  a  clearing  influence  over  the  surface 
plimiage  of  offspring.  Black  in  the  siu-face  pliunage  of  the 
back  of  the  parents  is  certain  to  darken  the  siu-face  plimiage 
of  their  offspring. 

The  hackle  of  female  Light  Brahmas  should  be  long,  broad, 
and  oval  at  the  point;  the  black  center  should  be  as  large  as 
possible;  the  greater  the  width  at  its  broadest  point,  the  more 
attractive  it  will  appear;  the  black  should  be  rich  and  bril- 
Hant  and  be  edged  about  completely  with  pure  white.  The 
same  style  of  feathers  should  encase  the  main  tail.  These 
are  coverts,  and  the  longer  and  broader  they  are,  the  more 
attractive  the  fowls  will  be.  There  are  natiurally  three  sets 
of  tail  coverts  about  the  tail  of  Light  Brahma  females.  When 
the  back  is  normal,  only  one  set  of  these  appear.  They  may 
be  cultivated  to  such  an  extent  as  to  have  two  or  three  rows 
of  black  coverts  edged  with  white  lined  along  the  space  between 
the  end  of  the  main  tail  feathers  and  the  white  in  the  back  and 
the  body  plumage.  When  these  grow  in  regular  formation  they 
add  beauty  to  the  fowl;  when  they  occur  in  irregular  form, 
they  are  undesirable.  The  more  a  female  has  of  this  the  less 
likely  is  she  to  produce  well,  unless  she  is  mated  with  males 
of  her  own  blood  line.  Such  markings  must  be  cultivated 
with  the  greatest  care.  But  few  males  of  a  quality  desirable 
for  exhibition  are  to  be  expected  from  matings  that  produce 
an  excess  of  tail  coverts  in  females.  Special  matings  must  be 
made  to  produce  and  maintain  this  special  feature  in  females. 
Males  from  such  matings  are  imfit  for  other  matings. 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  317 

14.  Double  Mating. — Mating  in  pairs,  trios,  or  three  or 
four  females  to  a  single  male  may  be  followed  in  double 
mating.  These  matings  may  be  so  arranged  as  to  produce 
offspring  that  will  have  extreme  types  of  color  and  markings, 
all  from  one  pen.  To  accompHsh  this,  males  of  perfect  Brahma 
type  that  are  fairly  dark  in  color  but  not  too  much  so  for  exhi- 
bition can  be  mated  with  hens  one  of  which  may  have  good 
surface  color  and  markings  and  very  dark  under  plimiage, 
another  perfect  in  surface  plimiage  and  with  slaty-blue  under 
plumage,  and  the  third  perfect  in  surface  color  and  with  a 
bluish  tint  in  the  under  plumage.  From  such  matings  cock- 
erels and  pullets  that  will  be  almost  too  dark  for  exhibition 
will  be  produced  from  the  hen  having  the  darkest  under  plu- 
mage. Fowls  of  an  intermediate  shade  of  color  may  be  pro- 
duced from  a  hen  having  a  slaty-blue  shade  in  the  imder 
plumage.  Clean  surface  plumage  may  be  produced  from  a 
female  having  the  hghtest  blue  in  the  under  plumage.  With 
such  matings  the  eggs  from  each  female  should  be  kept  sep- 
arate and  the  chicks  from  them  carefully  toe-miarked  for 
identification.  Where  a  large  number  of  Brahmas  are  kept, 
three  pens  are  frequently  necessary,  one  containing  females 
all  of  which  have  the  dark  shading  in  surface  and  under  plu- 
mage; the  second  pen,  those  with  a  perfect  surface  color  and  a 
slaty-blue  under  plumage;  and  the  third  containing  females 
having  the  perfect  surface  color  with  the  shading  of  blue  in 
the  under  plumage. 

Such  matings,  however,  can  be  handled  only  by  those  thor- 
oughly experienced  in  producing  the  most  extreme  color  in 
Light  Brahmas.  Many  chicks  of  little  or  no  value  occur  from 
such  matings.  Males  used  in  breeding  pens  of  this  character 
must  be  selected  with  the  greatest  care,  and  their  breeding 
must  be  in  line  with  the  hens  to  which  they  are  mated.  From 
such  extreme  matings,  many  of  the  most  attractive  fowls  for 
exhibition  are  obtained.  When  the  offspring  so  produced  are 
distributed  throughout  localities  where  standard  matings  have 
been  followed,  the  results  obtained  from  them  are  unsatisfac- 
tory. The  breeder  who  wishes  to  practice  double  matings 
for  the  production  of  the  most  extreme  type  of  color  and  mark- 


318  ASIATIC  FOWLS  ,§  6 

ings  should  seciire  both  males  and  females  from  those  who 
produce  them  and  adhere  closely  to  the  blood  lines  so  obtained. 
He  should  mingle  them  with  his  own  fowls  only  to  a  limited 
extent.  The  results  obtained  can  be  gradually  mingled  with 
the  offspring  from  the  other  matings.  When  so  handled,  sev- 
eral years  of  breeding  will  be  needed  to  produce  desirable 
results.  The  extreme  in  color  and  markings  in  Light  Brahmas 
can  be  produced  only  as  the  result  of  years  of  experience. 
Even  when  such  are'  produced,  they  must  come  as  a  result  of 
years  of  careful  mating;  they  cannot  be  bred  in  a  single  year 
from  the  intermingling  of  blood  lines  that  are  foreign  to  one 
another. 

The  males  used  in  such  matings  must  be  selected  to  meet 
the  desire  of  those  who  select  them.  When  clean,  clear  sur- 
face color  of  body  plumage,  accompanied  with  beautiful  neck, 
wings,  and  coverts,  is  desired,  the  males  must  not  only  be  bred 
from  this  kind  of  fowls,  but  they  must  have  in  them  the  blood 
lines  that  will  produce  such  markings.  The  same  is  true  when 
the  abnormally  dark  or  the  medium  dark  fowls  are  desired. 
In  each  instance  the  males  and  the  females  must  be  line  bred 
for  the  production  of  the  kind  of  fowls  desired.  There  must 
be  equal  attention  paid  to  the  blood  lines  of  Light  Brahmas 
for  breeding  special  color  as  is  needed  for  breeding  male  and 
female  lines  in  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks,  Partridge  Cochins,  or 
Dark  Brahmas.  Whenever  the  attempt  is  made  to  produce 
extreme  colors  in  Light  Brahmas,  the  same  regard  must  be 
shown  to  the  blood  lines  for  producing  them  as  to  that 
demanded  in  any  kind  of  fowls  of  which  the  males  and  the 
females  differ  in  color  of  bars,  stripes,  or  penciling  in  plumage. 

Extreme  matings  are  of  frequent  occurrence  at  the  present 
time.  These  are  tried  in  the  hope  of  producing  something 
quite  out  of  the  ordinary.  Fowls  of  imusual  character  are 
shown  from  time  to  time,  their  presence  causing  considerable 
speculation  as  to  the  manner  of  their  production.  These  are 
often  purchased  by  those  desiring  to  establish  a  strain  that 
wHl  produce  similar  fowls.  Failure  usually  follows  such 
efforts.  Unusual  quality  is  seldom,  if  ever,  produced  to  any 
extent   through   any  means    except   careful  breeding,    which 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  319 

usually  brings  reasonable  success  to  those  who  continue  the 
practice.  Extreme  niatings  may  be  successfully  handled  by 
those  who  have  built  up  a  strain  for  such  uses,  but  extreme 
matings  by  inexperienced  persons  are  likely  to  prove  unsatis- 
factory. For  these  reasons,  it  is  always  best  to  begin  with 
fowls  selected  from  a  strain  that  has  been  successfully  bred  for 
a  number  of  years,  and  from  these  to  breed  in  line  and  select 
and  remate  the  fowls  that  conform  to  the  greatest  extent  to  the 
kind  desired. 

DARK  BRAHMA 


ORIGIN,    IMPROVEMENT,    HISTORY,    AND    DESCRIPTION 

15.  The  Dark  Bralinia  has  always  been  considered  as 
one  of  the  most  difficult  of  all  fowls  to  breed  to  a  quahty 
approaching  perfection.  Although  fowls  of  this  variety  origi- 
nated from  the  same  kind  of  stock  from  which  the  Light 
Brahmas  have  been  developed,  they  are  in  no  way  alike, 
other  than  in  conformation.  As  originally  bred,  the  plumage 
of  Dark  Brahmas  was  not  so  distinct  and  apart  from  the 
Light  Brahmas  as  at  the  present  time.  The  color  and  mark- 
ings of  the  present  Dark  Brahmas  are  quite  in  contrast  with 
those  of  50  years  ago.  The  distribution  of  black  and  white 
throughout  their  plumage  and  their  distinct  separation  from 
one  another  give  a  finish  of  color  that  is  not  found  in  any  other 
variety,  except  in  those  having  the  same  color  and  markings. 
No  other  fowl  excels  in  beauty  a  Dark  Brahma  pullet  of  the 
highest  quality  when  in  prime  condition  for  the  show  room. 

16.  Origin. — Mr.  I.  K.  Felch,  of  Natick,  Massachusetts, 
stated  that  the  originals  from  which  Dark  Brahmas  came 
were  a  brood  of  chicks  produced  by  mating  a  Chittagong 
male  with  a  Marsh-Shanghai  hen.  Offspring  from  this  cross 
were  shipped  by  George  P.  Bumham,  of  Melrose,  Massa- 
chusetts, to  John  Bailey,  of  London,  England,  in  1853.  They 
were  perfected  in  England,  and  in  1866  specimens  were  sent 
from  England  to  Mr.  Lowrey,  of  Boston,  and  were  shown  in 
New  York  during  the  same  year.     By  selecting  and  mating 


320  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §  6 

the  darker  fowls,  the  Dark  Brahmas  were  made.  They  did 
not  originally  have  the  dark  markings  now  seen  on  them; 
their  early  variety  characters  are  shown  in  Fig.  2. 

17.  Improvemeiit. — More  attention  was  given  to  the 
early  development  of  Dark  Brahmas  in  England  than  in 
America.  Prior  to  1865  there  was  no  description  that  could 
be  accepted  as  an  absolute  guide  for  form  and  color  of  Brahmas 
of  either  variety.  Later  the  two  varieties  were  separated  and 
Dark  Brahma  males  were  described  as  having  silvery-white 
top  color,  and  black,  slightly  mottled  with  white,  as  breast 
and  under-body  color.  Females  were  described  as  dull  white, 
minutely  and  distinctly  marked  with  dark  penciling  so  close  as 
to  almost  cover  the  ground  color,  the  penciling  reaching  well  up 
the  front  of  the  breast.  As  may  be  seen  in  early  illustrations, 
the  pencilings  referred  to  stippling,  the  same  as  Brown  Leghorn 
females  are  now  marked. 

18.  History. — Dining  their  early  existence.  Dark  Brahmas 
were  crossed  with  both  Partridge  Cochins  and  Gray  Dorkings. 
From  these  crosses  the  silver-gray  tint  was  established,  and 
the  color  and  markings  were  improved.  About  1867,  Dark 
Brahmas  had  been  greatly  developed  and  improved;  this  is 
illustrated  in  Fig.  2,  which  is  a  copy  of  a  painting  of  a  pair  of 
Dark  Brahmas  made  by  Harrison  Weir.  About  this  time 
American  fanciers  began  to  pay  special  attention  to  this  variety, 
and  they  were  remodeled  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
American  Standard.  Since  that  time  there  has  been  a  marked 
difference  in  the  types  of  Brahmas  of  both  varieties  as  bred 
in  England  and  in  America.  The  breed  characters  of  Brahmas 
as  bred  in  England  are  shown  in  Mr.  Ludlow's  pen  sketch. 
Fig.  3. 

19.  Description. — Dark  Brahmas  should  have  the  same 
shape  as  described  for  the  Light  Brahmas.  Head,  comb,  and 
body  formation  should  conform  to  the  description  of  these 
parts  given  for  the  Light  Brahmas.  In  color,  the  males  should 
have  heads,  necks,  backs,  wing  bows,  and  wing  bays,  silvery 
white;  hackle  and  saddle  plumage  striped  with  black;  breast, 
body,  and  fluff,  black;  the  fluff  may  be  frosted  slightly — solid 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  321 

black  breast  preferred;  main  tail  feathers,  black;  sickles  and 
tail  coverts,  glossy  black,  btimished  with  green;  shanks  and 
toes,  yellow;  shank  and  toe  feathering,  black  or  black  frosted 
with  white;  when  this  occurs,  it  will  be  less  objectionable  than 
white  mixed  with  the  black  feathers.  The  wing  bar  of  the 
male  is  well-defined  black ;  the  white  in  the  secondaries,  when 
the  wing  is  folded,  forms  a  beautiful  wing  bay.  The  flights  and 
secondaries  should  be  black,  marked  with  white  on  the  lower 
part  of  the  web. 

The  hackle  feathers  of  the  Dark  Brahma  female  are  more 
tapering  than  those  of  the  Light  Brahma;  in  color,  they  are 
silvery  white,  with  a  broad  black  stripe  in  the  center.  Pen- 
ciling frequently  shows  in  the  center  of  the  hackle  plumage. 
The  entire  body  color  may  be  gray;  silvery  gray  is  even  more 
beautiful  than  the  gray  permitted  by  the  Standard.  The 
feathers  of  the  entire  body  are  penciled  with  a  darker  color, 
the  penciling  following  the  outline  of  the  feather.  In  the  most 
beautiful  females,  the  fluff  as  well  as  the  shank  and  toe  feather- 
ing is  penciled  the  same  as  the  body  pltimage;  the  main  tail 
feathers  are  black  or  brownish  black,  frequently  powdered 
with  gray;  the  leg  and  toe  feathering  is  the  same  color  as  the 
body  plumage.  The  shanks  and  toes  are  yellow  or  dusky 
yellow;  the  under  plumage  is  black  or  slate  color  in  both  males 
and  females.  For  the  production  of  beautiftd  markings  and 
clean,  clear  top  color  of  males  and  females,  a  lighter  shade  in 
the  under  plumage  is  desirable.  In  females,  the  flight  feathers 
should  be  edged  or  stippled  with  gray;  the  secondaries  are  a 
dull  black,  the  lower  portion  of  each  being  marked  with  gray, 
penciled  with  a  darker  shade.  In  many  females,  both  primaries 
and  secondaries  are  stippled  with  gray.  Although  the  Stand- 
ard requires  that  the  shanks  and  toes  shall  be  yellow,  yellow 
shaded  with  a  darker  color  is  frequently  present. 


MATING    OF    DAKK    BRAHMAS 

20.  In  mating  Dark  Brahmas  as  well  as  all  other  fowls 
that  have  the  same  color  and  markings,  the  most  difficult 
results  to  obtain  are  clean,  clear  top  color  in  males ;  solid  black 


322  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §6 

breast,  body,  fluff,  shank,  and  toe  feathering;  and  black  tails, 
surrounded  with  sickles  and  coverts  that  are  a  brilliant,  glossy- 
black.  To  produce  males  of  this  character  and  females  of 
the  proper  color  from  the  same  mating  has  baffled  the  skill 
of  poultrymen.  Matings  that  will  produce  color  like  this  in 
males  have  a  tendency  to  produce  females  too  dark  for  exhi- 
bition. Most  of  the  pullets  produced  from  such  matings 
have  so  much  brown  shading  in  the  back  and  body  plumage  as 
to  almost  bar  them  from  exhibition ;  or,  in  place  of  brown,  the 
plumage  may  be  so  invaded  with  black  as  to  cast  a  dark  shade 
or  metallic  luster  over  the  back  and  body  plimiage. 

For  these  reasons,  double  matings  have  been  practiced  for 
the  production  of  Darl^  Brahmas  for  exhibition.  In  some 
cases,  marked  attention  has  been  given  to  producing  females 
only,  and  the  best  male  offspring  from  such  matings  have 
been  selected  and  shown,  with  the  hope  that  their  beautiful 
top  color  would  overbalance  the  slight  defect  of  mottled  breasts, 
which  usually  occur  in  males  so  produced.  If  the  Standard 
were  changed  to  permit  mottled  breasts  in  Dark  Brahma 
males,  and  in  all  varieties  having  the  same  color  and  markings, 
beautiful  males  and  females  might  be  produced  from  single 
matings;  but  the  breast  of  the  male  would  be  more  or  less 
spotted  with  white.  To  produce  clean,  clear,  silvery  gray  in 
Dark  Brahma  females,  fowls  having  a  light  shade  of  color  in 
the  imder  plumage  must  be  used.  So  long  as  black  in  the  under 
plimiage  is  adhered  to  in  Dark  Brahmas,  the  producing  of  a 
beautiful,  clear  surface  color  will  be  difficult,  and  but  few 
offspring  so  produced  wiU  be  fit  for  exhibition. 

To  produce  exhibition  males  of  beautiful  color  and  markings, 
males  having  the  desired  color  in  plimiage  must  be  mated 
with  females  that  are  too  dark  in  plimiage  for  exhibition. 
Females  fit  for  this  purpose  are  frequently  so  dark  as  to  be 
brownish  gray  instead  of  silvery  gray.  The  entire  body 
plumage  of  females  used  for  this  purpose  should  be  very  dark 
gray,  penciled  with  black.  When  bred  in  this  way  for  several 
generations,  it  is  frequently  necessary  to  introduce  a  light- 
colored  male  from  the  female  line  to  prevent  metallic  black 
appearing  in  the  top  color  of  the  males.     A  moderate  shade 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  323 

of  breast  plumage  with  a  more  even  shade  of  top  color  may  be 
produced  from  exhibition  males  mated  with  females  that  have 
but  little  brown  in  the  surface  pltmiage  and  slate  in  the  under 
plumage.  Such  matings  are  likely  to  produce  good-colored 
males.  A  strain  of  male-producing  Dark  Brahmas  will  be 
established  in  this  way;  and  pullets  fit  for  exhibition  may  be 
produced  from  the  same  kind  of  matings.  Such  pullets,  how- 
ever, are  apt,  when  mature,  to  show  brown  shadings  in  the 
surface  plumage.  To  soften  the  shade  of  color  in  the  surface 
plumage  of  offspring  produced  in  this  way,  females  that  have 
light  under  plimiage  should  be  introduced. 

The  most  beautiful  females  for  exhibition  will  be  produced 
from  an  established  strain  that  has  been  created  for  the  piu:- 
pose  of  breeding  pullets.  To  establish  such  a  strain,  a  begin- 
ning must  be  made  with  hens  that  have  the  nearest  approach 
to  silvery  gray  in  back  and  body  plumage.  If  these  females 
have  light-gray  imder  plumage,  greater  success  is  likely  to  be 
obtained.  To  such  hens,  cockerels  having  a  clean,  clear 
silvery  top  color,  beautifully  striped  with  black,  must  be  mated. 
If  these  cockerels  have  light  imder  plumage,  some  specks  of 
white  on  the  breast  and  a  frosting  of  white  in  the  fluff,  better 
results  may  be  obtained  than  could  be  expected  from  males 
that  have  more  black  in  the  plimiage.  If  the  offspring  from 
such  a  mating  are  better  than  the  parents,  this  fact  may  be 
accepted  as  evidence  of  a  proper  beginning.  If  offspring  of 
poor  quality  result  from  such  a  mating,  a  new  male  should  be 
secured  for  mating  with  the  hens,  or  other  hens  may  be  selected 
and  a  second  trial  made  with  the  original  male.  So  soon  as 
males  and  females  having  a  clean,  clear,  surface  color,  with 
perfect  markings  in  the  females,  can  be  produced,  a  start  in 
the  right  direction  will  be  made. 

To  improve  the  breeding  qualities  of  the  pullet  strain,  only 
large  females  of  the  most  desirable  color  and  markings  should 
be  used.  To  these  males  of  the  same  strain  should  be  mated, 
using  only  males  that  have  clean,  clear,  top  color,  beautifully 
striped  with  black,  and  wing  markings  as  nearly  perfect  as 
possible.  To  establish  and  maintain  a  strain  of  this  kind, 
only  hens  in  their  second  or  third  year  should  be  used;  these 


324  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §  6 

should  be  of  the  most  perfect  Brahma  type  possible  to  select, 
and  should  possess  size  and  vigor  in  conformity  with  the  breed. 
Hens  of  this  character  that  have  light  or  silvery-gray  color 
in  top  pltimage,  marked  with  darker  pencilings  which  follow 
the  shape  of  the  feathers,  should  be  mated  to  males  that  have 
silvery- white  top  color  that  is  evenly  striped  with  black;  and 
that  have  black  in  breast  and  body  color,  slightly  spotted  with 
white.  Such  matings  should  produce  pullets  that  wiU  have 
the  most  desirable  shade  of  silvery -gray  surface  plumage. 
Some  of  the  pullets  so  produced  are  apt  to  have  breast  color 
too  light  in  shade  for  exhibition,  and  although  they  should  not 
be  used  for  breeding  purposes,  they  frequently  make  the  most 
attractive  hens  for  exhibition  in  their  second  and  third  years. 

Females  produced  in  this  way  are  likely  to  have  gray  or 
light-gray  under  plumage.  Although  this  does  not  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  Standard,  a  slight  deduction  for  under 
plinnage  of  this  kind  can  be  withstood,  provided  the  surface 
color  closely  approaches  perfection.  To  sustain  or  strengthen 
color  which  may  be  lost  in  a  strain  of  pullet-breeding  Dark 
Brahmas,  females  having  slate  under  plumage  may  be  intro- 
duced and  gradually  bred  into  the  flock.  A  well-established 
strain  of  pullet-breeding  Dark  Brahmas  can  be  sustained  with 
very  little  new  blood,  throughout  a  period  of  many  years.  One 
strain  of  this  kind  has  been  bred  in  the  state  of  New  York 
for  more  than  25  years.  Females  of  the  highest  quality  have 
been  produced  continually  from  them,  and  many  males  capable 
of  winning  in  the  keenest  competition  have  come  from  this 
same  flock. 

These  same  methods  can  be  applied  to  the  production  of 
Silver  Penciled  Wyandottes  and  Silver  Penciled  Plymouth 
Rocks.  In  selecting  producing  fowls  of  this  kind,  it  should 
always  be  remembered  that  such  as  have  the  darker  shade  of 
\mder  plumage  are  likely  to  produce  offspring  many  of  which 
wiU  be  darker  in  color  than  the  parents.  In  the  mating  of 
fowls  of  a  lighter  shade  of  surface  and  under  plimiage,  softer 
tints  in  the  surface  plumage  will  be  produced.  Fowls  of  these 
varieties  that  are  too  light  in  color  of  siirface  and  under  plu- 
mage, may  produce  some  offspring  having  beautifiilly  colored 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  325 

plumage.  When  bred  together  they  are  Hkely,  however,  to 
produce  offspring  which  fail  in  plumage  color.  Good  results 
will  always  be  obtained  from  having  a  reasonable  amount  of 
color  in  the  under  plumage  of  the  females  and  a  lighter  shade 
of  color  in  the  under  plumage  of  the  males. 


ANTWERP  BRAHMA 

21.  Origin. — ^As  nearly  as  can  be  ascertained,  the 
Antwerp  Braluna  fowls  were  taken  direct  from  China  to 
the  Antwerp  Zoological  Garden.  How  early  this  occurred 
cannot  be  determined.  The  reason  for  mentioning  them  here 
is  to  establish  their  identity,  because  reference  is  made  to  them 
later  as  one  of  the  originals  from  which  the  Malines  came. 
More  than  likely  this  fowl  was  of  the  same  kind  as  the  Gray 
Shanghais  which  were  taken  from  China  to  other  countries. 

22.  History. — The  Antwerp  Brahmas  were  sparingly 
bred  in  Belgium  from  the  time  of  their  first  coming,  up  to 
1800.  Since  then  more  attention  has  been  paid  to  them,  for 
the  purpose  of  crossing  them  with  other  fowls  rather  than 
for  breeding  them  to  any  extent  in  their  purity.  Their 
improvement  has  not  been  of  a  kind  that  will  demand  more 
than  passing  mention. 

23.  Description. — The  plumage  of  the  Antwerp  Brahma 
is  like  that  of  a  Light  Brahma  of  indifferent  quality.  The 
color. of  beak,  shanks,  and  skin  is  pinkish  white.  The  fowls 
are  sparingly  feathered  on  the  shanks  and  feet,  and  have  single 
combs.  The  variety  colors  are  white  and  white  marked  with 
black.  The  white  variety  resulted  from  selecting  fowls  that 
had  the  least  amount  of  black  in  their  plimiage  and  mating 
them  to  eliminate  the  black. 

There  is  no  general  rule  for  mating  Antwerp  Brahmas  for 
shape  or  for  color;  the  only  rule  of  mating  is  for  utility  purposes. 


326  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §  6 


BUFF  BRAHMA 

24.     A  variety  of  Brahma  known  as  the  Buff  Braliina, 

having  buff-colored  plumage  and  black  markings  similar  to 
those  of  the  Light  Brahmas,  has  been  sparingly  bred  in  some 
localities.  This  variety  is  thought  to  have  originated  from 
crossing  dark  or  cinnamon-colored  Biiff  Cochin  males  with 
Light  Brahma  females,  selecting  the  offspring  having  the  best 
buff  color  and  dark  markings,  mating  them,  and  remating  their 
offspring  for  the  production  of  better  form  and  color.  So  few 
of  them  have  been  bred  that  they  are  a  rarity  rather  than  an 
accepted  variety.  

COCHIN 


ORIGIN,   DEVELOPMENT,   HISTORY,   AND  BREED 
CHARACTERS 

25.  Among  the  many  kinds  of  fowls  that  were  brought 
from  the  Oriental  countries,  none  were  more  highly  considered 
than  the  Shanghai  fowls.  These  fowls  were  first  known  as 
Shanghai,  then  as  Cochin  China,  and  later  as  Coeliin.  That 
they  were  brought  from  China  in  a  very  crude,  state  cannot  be 
disputed.  Many  of  them  had  no  feathering  on  their  shanks; 
others  were  sparingly  feathered;  and  some  were  fairly  well 
feathered  down  the  shank  and  on  the  outer  toe,  with  a  few 
feathers  on  the  middle  toe ;  all  had  single  combs ;  long,  pendent 
wattles,  and  ear  lobes  that  were  separated  from  the  wattles 
and  were  not  so  long  in  proportion  as  the  wattles  of  the  original 
Brahmas.  There  were  many  kinds  of  color  and  markings 
among  them;  the  yellow  Shanghai,  as  originally  called,  had  a 
shade  of  plumage  that  could  be  distinguished  as  yellow  or 
cinnamon  buff;  another  variety,  called  Pheasant  Shanghai 
(now  Partridge  Cochin),  and  some  fowls  of  black  and  some 
of  white  plumage  all  badly  marked  with  foreign  colors.  The 
fowls  of  the  different  kinds  were  separated  and  bred  together. 

For  many  years  there  was  more  or  less  controversy  as  to 
whether  the  Shanghais  and  the  Brahmapootras  were  of  dis- 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  327 

tinctive  origin.  The  facts  that  the  true  Brahmapootras  had 
pea  combs  and  the  Shanghais  had  single  combs,  and  that  the 
tail  formation  was  different  in  the  two  varieties,  all  had  their 
influence  toward  a  reasonable  settlement  of  the  question, 
and  from  the  time  of  their  separation  into  breeds  and  dis- 
tinctive varieties,  the  Cochins  (formerly  Shanghais)  have 
prospered.  At  one  time  they  were  the  most  highly  considered 
of  all  poultry  throughout  the  world,  and  they  have  been  more 
largely  used  in  the  makeup  of  new  breeds  than  any  other 
breed  of  fowls. 

26.  Origin. — Cochin  fowls  of  aU  varieties  originated  in 
China.  Beyond  the  fact  that  they  were  bred  there  for  many 
centiiries  no  information  relative  to  their  origin  can  be  obtained. 
It  was  formerly  thought  that  all  varieties  of  Cochins  had 
descended  from  the  fowls  that  were  sent  by  the  British  Ambas- 
sador, from  China  in  1843,  to  her  Majesty  the  Queen  of  Eng- 
land; this  is,  however,  erroneous.  Many  shipments  of  all 
varieties  of  Cochins  were  sent  from  China  to  England  and  to 
America  during  the  years  that  elapsed  between  1840  and  1846, 
and  from  a  selection  of  the  best  of  them,  Cochin  fowls  have 
originated. 

27.  Developraent. — Cochins  were  developed  from  the 
Shanghais  that  came  from  China  during  the  years  inter^^ening 
between  1843  and  1850.  The  first  offspring  were  reddish  buff 
in  color,  and  from  these  crude  originals  the  beautiful  Cochins 
of  the  present  have  been  developed.  From  1850  to  1870  their 
development  was  carried  on  mostly  by  the  EngUsh  fanciers; 
a  few  of  them  were  developed  in  the  United  States  during  the 
same  period.  From  1870  to  the  present,  the  development  of 
Cochins  in  England  and  America  has  differed  greatly,  both  in 
style  of  feathering  and  in  color.  The  original  buff  variety 
was  more  attractive  and  the  development  of  the  fowls  of  this 
variety  was  more  rapid  than  that  of  the  other  varieties.  The 
Partridge  Cochins  were  badl}'  marked,  and  the  distribution  of 
black  and  red  was  not  well  defined ;  the  markings  of  the  female 
were  irregular,  being  more  hke  the  stipphng  of  the  Brown 
Leghorns  of  the  present  than  like  the  beautiful  penciling  that 


328  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §  6 

has  been  developed.  Many  of  the  original  females  had  clay- 
colored  breasts.  From  matings  of  carefully  selected  fowls, 
the  present  Partridge  Cochins  have  been  developed.  Black 
Cochins  were  not  true  to  color  and  the  white  variety  lacked 
Cochin  shape  and  purity  of  plumage  color. 

The  greatest  development  of  Cochins  in  America  has  taken 
place  since  the  compilation  of  the  Standard  of  1874;  greater 
development  in  all  varieties  has  followed  the  organization  of 
the  American  Cochin  Club. 

28.  History. — Cochin  fowls  came  from  China  in  1845, 
the  Queen  of  England  probably  receiving  the  first.  Sub- 
sequent to  that  date,  they  were  brought  plentifully  into  Eng- 
land and  a  few  of  them  came  to  America.  Cochin  history 
begins  with  those  selected  by  Mr.  Sturges,  of  Essex,  England; 
these  fowls  were  selected  in  1847,  and,  although  it  has  been 
recorded  that  Captain  Elder  sent  some  to  England  from  Canton, 
in  1842,  Mr.  Stiu-ges  made  the  first  exhibit  of  Cochins  at  the 
Birmingham  show  in  1850.  From  that  time  until  the  issuing 
of  the  Standard  of  1867,  they  were  bred  in  five  shades  of  buff; 
Buff  Cochins,  Lemon  Cochins,  Silver-Buff  Cochins,  Silver- 
Cinnamon  Cochins,  and  Cinnamon  Cochins.  Grouse  or  Part- 
ridge Cochins  were  bred  in  two  colors;  one  was  rich  brown, 
distinctly  penciled  with  darker  brown;  the  other  was  light 
brown,  distinctly  penciled  with  dark  brown.  White  and 
Black  Cochins  were  also  bred  to  a  limited  extent. 

Cochins  of  early  days  were  tall  and  long  in  the  shanks  and 
neck.  It  was  not  unusual  for  males  a  year  old  to  be  able  to 
pick  food  from  the  top  of  a  flour  barrel.  The  Cochins  were 
flat  in  the  breast,  and  although  they  laid  well  and  were  well 
considered  as  table  poultry,  because  of  the  large  amount  of 
meat  on  the  carcass,  they  were  of  bad  proportions  and 
irregular  in  color  and  markings.  The  poultrymen  of  England 
have  always  bred  for  profuse  feathering  in  Cochins;  American 
poultrymen,  up  to  about  1889,  showed  a  preference  for  less 
profuse  feathering,  better  color  in  the  under  plimiage,  and  a 
development  of  the  qualities  of  egg  production  and  market 
poultry. 


%^ 


iiK 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  329 

From  1879  to  1890  the  home  of  the  Cochins  in  America 
was  largely  confined  to  the  Middle  West.  About  1885,  better 
Cochins  of  the  Partridge  variety  were  bred  in  New  England 
than  elsewhere;  and  immediately  following  1890,  the  Cochins 
of  the  East,  in  all  varieties,  gradually  outranked  those  of  any 
other  part  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The  profuse 
feathering  developed  by  the  English  fanciers  made  fowls  bred 
there  useless  to  the  American  fancier.  From  that  time  until 
the  present,  the  Cochins  bred  in  England  have  been  as  different 
in  form,  feather,  and  color  from  those  bred  in  America  as  if 
they  were  not  of  the  same  breed. 

29.  Breed  Characters. — Breed  characters  must  be  the 
sarhe  in  all  varieties  of  Cochin.  The  true  value  of  breed 
characters  is  that  they  render  a  type  so  marked  as  to  separate 
one  breed  from  another,  the  form  being  so  distinctive  that  the 
fowls  can  be  selected  as  belonging  to  that  breed,  regardless  of 
variety  color. 

BUFF  COCHIN 


ORIGIN,    HISTORY,    AND    DESCRIPTION 

30.  The  Buff  Cochin  fowls  that  first  came  from  China 
were  not  only  the  first  of  all  Cochins,  but  the  original,  so  far  as 
known,  of  all  biiff-plumaged  fowls.  No  fowl  has  ever  attracted 
more  attention  than  the  Buff  Cochin,  and  no  fowl  is  more 
beautiful  when  of  the  proper  color  and  type. 

31.  Origin. — The  Buff  Cochin  variety  has  been  made 
from  the  original  fowls  that  were  brought  from  China.  The 
origin  and  development  of  the  fowls  of  this  variety  is  so 
entwined  with  the  origin  and  development  of  all  Cochins  as 
to  have  made  it  necessary  to  tell  of  them  imder  the  origin 
and  development  of  the  breed. 

32.  History. — Fowls  of  no  other  breed  have  ever  held 
such  a  prominent  position  in  the  history  of  poultry  as  the 
Buff  Cochins.  They  were  not  only  the  original  Cochins  that 
came  from  China,  but  they  were  the  original  biiff  fowls.     From 


330  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §  6 

them  all  buff-plumaged  fowls  have  been  fashioned.  They 
have  been  used  in  every  land  where  poultry  is  bred,  for  crossing 
with  the  fowls  of  the  locality  to  improve  them.  They  were 
the  most  prolific  egg  producers  of  early  days,  and  were  remark- 
able for  size  and  for  the  quality  of  their  meat. 

33.  Description. — The  Buff  Cochin  is  a  fowl  of  large 
size,  profuse  feathering,  and  rotimd  formation;  it  is  distinctly 
a  fowl  of  graceful  curves,  and  each  section  must  be  more  or 
less  globular  in  form.  Although  Cochins  have  a  dignified 
appearance,  they  should  have  the  peculiarity  of  a  forward 
carriage  that  drops  the  breast  slightly  toward  the  ground. 
The  head  points  of  a  typical  Cochin  can  be  better  illustrated 
than  described,  and  they  are  well  represented  in  the  color 
illustrations  shown.  The  neck  of  Cochins  should  be  short  and 
arched;  the  hackle  flowing  down  over  the  back,  which  should 
rise  within  a  short  distance  of  the  end  of  the  hackle,  forming 
a  beautiful  curve,  and  the  cushion  should  rise  globularly  and 
combine  with  the  hackle  to  form  the  beautiful  Cochin  back. 
The  breast  shoiild  be  very  prominent  and  rounding  in  all 
directions;  the  breastbone  should  be  set  well  down  between 
the  thighs,  which  must  be  widened  out  to  make  room  for 
breast  formation.  The  body  should  be  evenly  poised  on  the 
legs;  the  abdomen,  round,  full  and  profusely  feathered.  The 
feathers  of  Cochins  should  be  more  fluff  than  web,  the  imder 
fluff  being  so  soft  and  plentiful  as  to  build  out  and  make  more 
prominent  the  rotund  form. 

The  typical  Cochin  female  is  fashioned  much  like  the  male, 
with  the  difference  that  the  back  of  the  male  is  very  broad, 
and  that  of  the  female  forms  a  perfect  cushion.  The  main 
tail  feathers  of  the  female  may  droop  a  little  but  they  stand 
natiirally  in  a  line  that  shows  as  if  it  were  a  continuation  of 
the  back.  If  the  cushion  sweeps  down  at  its  extreme  end, 
the  tail  feathers  shotild  extend  out  beyond  the  last  line  of 
cushion.  This  may  occur  naturally,  from  the  fact  that  the 
excessive  or  profuse  fluff  in  the  plimiage  lifts  the  cushion  so  high 
as  to  carry  it  above  the  natural  line  of  the  tail.  Great  width 
between  the  thighs  and  profuse  feathering  about  the  shanks 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  331 

and  thighs  add  to  the  beauty  of  the  females.  Both  the  males 
and  the  females  shoiild  have  all  the  feathers  it  is  possible  for 
them  to  grow  without  developing  stiff  hock  plumage.  This 
same  general  description  will  apply  to  all  varieties  of  Cochins. 
A  complete  description,  section  by  section,  of  poultry  for 
exhibition  will  be  found  in  the  American  and  English  Stand- 
ards. The  correct  shape  and  plumage  color  is  shown  in  the 
color  illustrations.  Cochins  of  all  varieties  are  shown  in  colors 
and  an  effort  has  been  made  to  illustrate  in  these  the  several 
types  of  Cochins  that  are  permissible  in  the  show  room.  No 
attempt,  however,  has  been  made  to  show  the  profuse  feather- 
ing of  the  English  Cochins.  The  English  type  does  not  meet 
the  approval  of  the  American  fanciers,  for  its  stiff  vulttire-hock 
feathering  is  a  disqualification. 


MATING    OF    BUFF    COCHINS 

34.  Mating  for  Shape. — Mating  for  shape  in  Cochins 
requires  the  same  general  outline  to  be  followed  in  all  varieties. 
Time  will  be  wasted  in  an  attempt  to  produce  exhibition 
Cochins  from  fowls  that  lack  breed  characters  and  proper 
color.  Hens  2  or  3  years  old,  or  even  older,  if  they  are  large 
and  of  perfect  Cochin  type,  are  best  from  which  to  produce 
offspring  that  will  possess  desirable  size  and  vigor.  Provided' 
that  stiff  plumage  about  the  hocks  is  absent,  profuse  feather- 
ing should  always  be  preferred  in  the  females.  The  male, 
however,  is  more  likely  to  have  stiff  hock  feathering  than 
the  female.  To  be  successful  in  the  production  of  soft  feather- 
ing about  the  hocks,  fowls  having  this  kind  of  feathering  to  a 
marked  degree  should  be  selected.  To  improve  or  increase 
the  quantity  of  feathering  below  the  breast  line,  fowls  that 
have  an  abundance  of  heavy  feathering  about  the  thighs, 
hocks,  shanks,  and  toes  should  be  selected.  Parents  of  this 
kind  will  not  only  increase  the  quality  of  under  feathering, 
as  it  is  called,  but  will  stiffen  the  plumage  as  well. 

Under  feathering  can  be  better  increased  with  the  least 
chance  of  failure  by  the  use  of  females  that  have  thr,  kind  of 
plumage  desired.     Females  of  this  kind,  mated  to  males  with 


332  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §  6 

profuse  and  perfectly  soft  feathering  about  the  hocks,  will 
increase  leg  and  toe  feathering  without  losing  the  correct  under 
feathering.  The  use  of  males  with  profuse  and  stiff  under 
feathering  bring  quickly  into  the  flock  the  influence  of  vtdture 
hocks.  For  this  reason,  the  use  of  females  for  improving  under 
feathering  is  recommended,  and  in  addition  to  this,  care  must 
be  given  to  selecting  and  pairing  so  as  to  produce  from  year 
to  year  offspring  like  those  shown  in  the  color  illustration 
of  the  buff  variety,  without  having  vulture-hock  feathering. 
To  have  the  most  profuse  leg  and  toe  feathering,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  select  males  and  females  of  remarkably  good  shape 
with  stiff  feathers  at  the  hocks ;  long,  stiff  quills  in  the  plumage 
of  shanks  and  toes;  and  long,  stiff  feathers  on  the  thighs,  in 
front,  and  on  the  lower  part  of  the  breast. 

It  is  not  easy  to  produce  Cochin  cockerels  with  full,  rounded 
breasts,  because  the  natural  inclination  of  all  Cochins  with 
profuse  leg  and  toe  feathering  is  to  go  flat  in  the  breast.  To 
avoid  this  requires  constant  watchfulness.  Some  fanciers 
attempt  to  improve  breast  formation  by  feeding  the  fowls  into 
an  excessively  fat  condition  for  show  purposes.  This  is  more 
likely  to  enlarge  the  abdomen  than  to  improve  the  breast. 
The  only  safe  means  of  having  breast  formation  of  the  most 
approved  type  is  by  selecting  breeding  stock  that  possess  this 
requirement  to  a  marked  degree,  and  mating  them  together. 
The  only  safe  line  to  follow  in  mating  for  the  production  of 
Cochins  of  proper  type  is  to  mate  only  such  fowls  that  are  as 
nearly  perfect  in  every  section  as  possible  and  to  continue  the 
selecting  of  the  best  offspring  each  year. 

35.  Selecting  the  Breeding  Stock. — The  proper  selec- 
tion of  fowls  for  mating  is  the  most  important  part  in  the  whole 
routine  of  poultry  culture.  Years  of  experience  with  a  cer- 
tain variety  of  fowls,  close  observation  of  the  results  which 
some  of  the  breeding  stock  have  produced,  and  a  fiill  knowl- 
edge of  the  possibilities  of  a  strain,  are  of  great  importance. 
Occasionally  there  will  appear  in  the  offspring  peculiarities 
almost  forgotten,  which  may  have  come  in  direct  line  from 
fowls  that  possessed  them,  and  which  were  used  many  years 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  333 

before.  Such  recurrences  are  not  frequent,  but  when  they  do 
appear  it  is  best  to  be  rid  of  the  offspring  and  the  hen  that 
produced  them.  A  well-trained  eye,  special  skill,  and  good 
judgment  are  required  in  selecting  the  fowls  from  which  to 
produce  exhibition  poultry. 

Fowls  selected  for  mating  should  not  only  be  of  mature  age 
and  as  nearly  perfect  in  breed  characters  as  possible,  but  no 
deformities  in  form  or  feather  should  be  permitted  to  creep 
into  a  flock,  even  though  the  deformed  fowl  may  have  other 
qualities  of  great  importance.  In  Cochins,  only  fowls  that 
are  strong  and  well  matured  should  be  used  for  breeding. 
Immature  fowls  or  fowls  that  are  more  than  3  years  old  are 
not  apt  to  prove  of  the  greatest  value.  Undersized  fowls  or 
such  as  have  the  appearance  of  immaturity  cannot  be  expected 
to  produce  well  in  any  flock.  It  is  useless  to  attempt  to  breed 
good  poultry  from  poor  and  imperfect  fowls. 

36.  Selecting  tlie  Male. — In  selecting  a  male  to  head 
a  breeding  pen,  do  not  imagine  that  his  desirable  qualities 
will  impress  themselves  to  any  extent  on  the  progeny  from 
hens  of  inferior  quality.  The  male  is  half  of  the  breeding 
pen,  but  no  more.  He  should  be  as  good  as  it  is  possible  to 
have  him,  but  if  he  is  mated  to  females  of  inferior  quality 
he  will  be  able  to  accomplish  only  one-half  as  much  good  as 
he  might  attain  if  mated  with  hens  fully  his  equal.  The  prac- 
tice of  purchasing  males  of  sterling  qualities  is  profitable, 
because  from  such  males  an  improved  quality  in  the  offspring 
may  be  obtained  even  from  females  of  minimimi  merit.  To 
succeed  in  producing  offspring  of  the  highest  quality,  the  males 
selected  must  not  only  be  of  the  best,  but  the  females  must  be 
carefully  selected.  In  choosing  the  male,  it  shoiild  be  done 
with  a  view  to  reproducing  his  form,  vigor,  and  color.  He 
shotdd  possess  the  qualities  of  size,  shape,  color,  and  breed 
characters,  and  in  addition  to  this  he  should  be  line  bred, 
so  as  to  have  well  established  in  him  all  the  desirable  qualities 
which  make  possible  the  reproduction  of  the  same  qualities 
in  his  offspring;  his  vigor  should  be  very  marked  and  his 
activity  should  be  noticeable. 


334  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §6 

37.  Selecting  the  Feraale. — The  hens  for  the  breeding 
pen  should  be  as  carefully  selected  as  the  males.  Each  fowl 
should  be  carefully  examined  for  shape  and  color  in  every  sec- 
tion; the  more  attention  that  is  given  to  this,  the  greater  will 
be  the  chance  of  success;  for,  imless  the  hens  have  all  the 
characters  required  for  success  in  the  show  pen,  they  will  be 
of  little  value  for  breeding  exhibition  offspring  of  the  best 
quality. 

38.  Parental  Influence. — A  principle  that  has  been 
accepted  is  that  the  male  has  the  greater  influence  over  head 
points,  finish,  and  color  of  the  offspring;  and  that  the  female 
has  most  to  do  with  size  and  form  of  body.  Although  this  is 
true  to  a  certain  extent,  and  much  more  likely  to  be  the  case 
in  some  varieties  than  in  others,  it  cannot  be  depended  on  to  a 
certainty.  Some  hold  the  belief  that  such  is  the  case  only 
when  each  parent  has  the  dominating  influence  over  the  separate 
powers  attributed  to  it.  According  to  Mendelian  principles, 
the  male  should  have  the  greater  influence  over  females  which 
he  dominates  and  that  this  principle  would  fail  with  females 
that  have  the  dominating  power  over  the  male.  Years  of 
experience  in  mating  for  the  production  of  golden  buff  in  plu- 
mage have  proved  that  the  male  has  the  greater  power  over  color 
in  Buff  Cochin  fowls,  and  that  size  is  largely  influenced  by  the 
female.  The  same  is  true  in  Black  and  White  Cochins.  Line 
breeding  applied  through  the  double-mating  system  has  proved 
the  most  satisfactory  for  the  production  of  partridge  color. 

39.  Buff  Color  in  Plumage. — To  be  true  and  beautiftd, 
the  biiff  color  in  the  surface  plumage  of  a  fowl  should  be  one 
even  shade  throughout,  including  the  tail.  If  there  is  any 
foreign  color  in  the  plimiage  it  should  be  confined  to  the  sec- 
ondaries of  the  wing  and  the  main  tail  feathers.  Originally 
dark  red  or  chestnut  were  permissible  in  sickles  and  black  in 
main  tail  feathers  of  the  male,  but  at  the  present  time  buff- 
colored  fowls  can  be  produced  without  the  least  foreign  color 
in  the  plumage.  Where  black  exists  in  any  part  of  the  plumage 
of  breeding  fowls,  their  offspring  are  apt  to  show  more  of  this 
in  the  same  section,  and  a  darker  shade  of  siurface  color  as  well. 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  335 

Where  white  exists  in  the  under  plumage,  or  in  any  part  of  the 
plumage  of  the  parent  stock,  more  of  this  is  likely  to  show  in 
the  offspring.  The  shade  of  color  should  be  even  throughout, 
so  dense  as  to  hide  the  color  in  the  under  plumage,  and  look 
clean  and  clear  without  mealiness.  Some  fowls  that  have  the 
most  beautiful  stirface  color  have  almost  pure  white  in  the 
under  plumage.  When  this  occiirs,  unless  the  color  in  the  web 
of  the  feathers  is  very  strong,  the  white  will  show  through  and 
give  the  appearance  of  a  very  light  shade  of  surface  color. 
Males  having  red,  brown,  or  pale-lemon  surface  color  are  not 
golden  buff,  and  aU  shades  of  color  except  golden  buff,  are 
foreign. 

When  a  buff-plumaged  fowl  is  held  in  the  hands  and  its  head 
is  moved  backwards  so  that  the  hackle  will  sweep  over  the 
back  of  the  saddle,  the  whole  surface  color  of  top  plumage 
should  be  of  the  one  even  shade  of  golden  buff,  richly  glossed 
with  sheen  in  the  males  but  not  in  the  females.  The  under 
part  of  the  body  of  the  females  should  be  one  even  shade  of 
golden  buff,  the  same  as  in  the  top  part,  and  lacking  the  sheen 
of  the  male;  the  under  plumage  should  be  buff  two  or  three 
shades  lighter  than  the  surface  color  and  not  more  than  two 
shades  lighter  in  the  males.  The  greatest  strength  of  color 
will  be  found  in  fowls  that  have  clean,  clear,  rich  golden-buff 
surface  color  on  the  breast,  and  under  plumage  that  shows  buff 
to  the  skin.  Such  fowls  can  usually  be  depended  on  to  breed 
more  true  than  those  that  have  white  in  the  under  plumage 
of  the  breast.  In  both  males  and  females,  flights  and  second- 
aries should  show  no  foreign  color  and  should  be  somewhat 
darker  than  the  body  plumage.  The  main  tail  feathers  should 
have  the  same  color  as  the  flights.  The  sickles  and  coverts 
in  the  male  should  have  the  same  color  as  the  pliimage  of  the 
saddle. 

40.  Mating  for  Buff  Plumage. — Only  one  shade  of  buff 
is  correct  for  buff-plumaged  fowls.  If  the  poultryman  prefers 
a  shade  darker  or  lighter  than  the  golden-buff  color,  he  must 
select  fowls  that  have  the  shade  of  color  preferred.  Fowls  in 
their  first  year's  plimiage  must  be  selected  from  which  to  pro- 


336  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §  6 

duce  the  proper  shade  of  golden  buff.  Cockerels  and  pullets 
of  buff-plumaged  fowls  usually  have  better  color  than  cocks 
and  hens  of  the  same  variety.  It  should  always  be  remem- 
bered that  yearling  hens  and  hens  that  are  older  are  likely  to 
lose  more  or  less  in  plumage  color,  as  there  is  a  natiural  fading 
with  age.  Yearlings  often  have  a  slightly  darker  shade  of 
color  in  top  and  body  plumage  than  they  had  as  cockerels, 
and  in  some  cases  where  the  color  is  weak  in  their  under  plu- 
mage they  become  a  lighter  shade  in  siuf  ace  color  with  age  and 
show  some  white  in  wings  and  tails. 

Cockerels  for  mating  should  have  perfect  surface  plimiage 
throughout,  with  no  foreign  color.  The  color  should  be  one 
even  shade  of  golden  bluff  and  the  top  plumage  should  have 
the  proper  sheen ;  the  imder-plumage  color  should  be  of  an  even 
shade  that  conforms  to  the  color  of  the  top  pltunage.  The 
imder  plumage  throughout  should  be  one  or  two  shades  lighter 
than  the  surface  plumage,  with  equal  strength  of  color  in  the 
imder  fluff  of  the  breast  plimiage;  and  the  shanks  and  toes 
should  be  yellow.  In  Buff  Cochins,  leg  and  toe  feathering 
must  be  as  pure  in  color  as  the  body  plumage,  and  the  flights, 
secondaries,  and  main  tail  feathers  at  least  a  shade  darker 
than  the  body  plimiage.  The  quills  of  all  feathers  should  be 
the  same  shade  of  biiff  as  the  web  and  the  under  plumage. 
In  each  instance,  the  color  of  the  quill  must  match  the  color 
that  grows  from  it,  so  as  to  have  the  entire  feather  of  the  same 
shade. 

When  they  possess  color  of  this  kind,  in  both  quill  and  web, 
there  is  not  likely  to  be  the  least  appearance  of  shaftiness  in 
the  plimiage.  The  main  tail  feathers  should  be  of  the  same 
shade  as  the  flight  feathers.  In  some  varieties  of  buff-plu- 
maged fowls,  small  dark-colored  spots  may  be  found  in  the  main 
tail  feathers  and  in  the  secondaries  of  the  wings.  Such  color 
may  be  permitted  to  a  limited  extent.  If  fowls  having  dark 
markings  of  this  kind  are  mated,  more  black  will  come  in  the 
main  tail  feathers,  flights,  and  secondaries  of  the  offspring, 
a.nd  a  less  perfect  shade  of  surface  color.  Better  results  will 
be  obtained  from  fowls  that  have  too  dark  a  shade  of  buff 
in  the  secondaries  and  main  tail  feathers  than  wlU  come  from 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  337 

males  that  have  less  strength  of  color  and  black  markings  in 
these  feathers. 

The  females  for  mating  with  a  male  of  this  character  should 
be,  as  pullets,  one  even  shade  of  golden  buff  throughout;  the 
color  on  the  breast  should  be  one  shade  lighter  than  the  color 
on  the  breast  of  the  male.  The  females  must  have  a  good, 
even  shade  of  buff  in  the  under  plumage  of  the  breast,  not 
more  than  two  shades  lighter  than  the  siirface  color;  the  wing 
secondaries  and  main  tail  feathers  should  be  slightly  darker 
than  the  body  plumage;  the  shaft,  or  quill,  must  be  of  the  same 
color  as  the  web  of  the  feather;  the  buff  should  be  so  well  laid 
on  the  web  of  the  feather  as  to  appear  absolutely  even  through- 
out, and  should  extend  down  to  the  skin  on  both  feather  and 
quiU,  with  the  natural  gradation  best  suited  to  the  under 
plumage.  Hens  of  this  description,  when  2  or  3  years  old,  are 
best  suited  for  breeding  purposes.  Hens  that  lose  in  surface 
color,  but  which  retain  the  proper  shade  of  under  plumage, 
may  be  used  for  breeding  purposes;  hens  that  have  become 
mottled  in  surface  plumage  and  which  grow  lighter  in  under 
plumage  are  not  desirable  for  the  production  of  buff  fowls. 
There  should  be  no  foreign  color  in  the  plumage  of  females 
used  for  breeding  purposes,  white,  black,  or  foreign  color  of 
any  kind  being  objectionable. 

The  color  of  the  eye  has  more  influence  over  results  obtained 
in  mating  for  buff  color  than  is  usually  conceded.  Both  males 
and  females  that  have  correct  plumage  color  and  brilliant  eyes 
of  proper  shade  of  red — not  pink,  but  red  that  approaches 
the  shade  most  desirable  in  the  comb  of  the  fowl — will  be 
better  suited  for  mating  than  those  without  the  proper  color 
of  eye.  Naturally  the  eye  and  pliunage  lose  brilliancy  as  the 
season  advances.  Females  that  lay  well  lose  the  richness  of 
color  in  eyes  and  shanks;  the  same  occurs  with  the  males  as 
the  season  advances.  Cockerels  and  pullets  at  the  beginning 
of  the  breeding  season,  or  early  in  the  spring,  should  have  the 
color  of  the  eye  clean,  clear,  and  brilliant ;  and  shank  and  skin, 
rich  yellow.  These  same  rules  apply  to  buff  varieties  of  all 
breeds,;  the  only  difference  is  that  in  close-plumaged  fowls, 
such  as  Buff  Leghorns,  there  should  be  a  stronger  shade  of 


338  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §  6 

color  in  the  surface  plumage  of  the  breeding  stock.  Buff 
Leghorns  generally  have  less  strength  of  color  in  the  under 
plumage  than  other  breeds,  and  their  offspring  are  usually 
lighter  in  surface  color  than  the  parent  stock;  for  this  reason, 
more  color  is  needed  in  the  breeding  stock. 


BLACK  COCHIN 

41.  The  Black  Coclilii  of  the  present  time  is  a  made 
variety.  As  the  fowls  originally  came  from  China,  they  did 
not  have  rich  black  plumage,  and  were  lacking  in  other  qual- 
ities. In  the  Poultry  Book  of  Wingfield  &  Johnson,  issued 
in  1850,  it  was  stated:  "Black  Cochins,  of  which  so  few  have 
been  exhibited,  are  very  scarce.  Several  have  been  imported 
but  we  have  reason  to  suppose  that  a  large  majority  of  those 
now  in  England  have  been  bred  between  the  white  and  buff 
varieties.  Some  of  the  best  that  we  have  seen  have  their 
sire  of  the  former  color,  while  their  mother  was  a  biiff  fowl. 
From  thirteen  eggs  ten  dusky  chicks  were  produced,  of  which, 
in  due  time,  several  assumed  the  following  colors:  two  pullets 
were  wholly  black;  two  pullets  and  three  cockerels  were  more 
or  less  gold  in  hackle,  and  marking  in  the  wings ;  and  the  remain- 
ing three  were  very  darkly  penciled  pullets,  altogether  dis- 
similar to  any  Shanghais  we  had  ever  seen.  The  hatching  of 
subsequent  nests  of  eggs  gave  a  similar  proportion  of  color." 

Some  poultry  authorities  have  claimed  that  pure  black 
Shanghais,  or  Cochins,  have  never  been  imported  from  China, 
but  that  all  the  black  fowls  brought  from  that  country  were 
of  the  breed  known  as  Langshan.  Whether  or  not  this  is  true, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  many  of  the  original  partridge-colored 
fowls  produced  offspring  with  black  plumage  and  considerable 
red  in  the  hackle  and  on  the  wing  bows  of  the  males. 

42.  Description. — Black  Cochins  are  truly  Cochin  in 
size,  shape,  and  feathering,  the  difference  between  them  and 
those  of  the  other  varieties  of  Cochins  being  in  the  color  of 
the  plumage.  The  plumage  must  be  glossy  black  through- 
out, overcast  with  a  rich  beetle-green  sheen  on  the  nlales; 


§  6  A.SIATIC  FOWLS  339 

and  less  of  this  on  the  females.  All  Cochins  must  have  beauti- 
fiil  head  formation,  single  combs  of  medium  size  and  evenly- 
serrated;  Cochins  may  have  attractive  combs  with  but  three 
points,  and  four  points  frequently  occur;  but  the  Standard 
demands  that  all  Cochins  have  five  points  in  their  combs. 
The  wattles  and  ear  lobes  of  Cochins  should  be  prominent 
and  fine  in  texture;  the  eyes  red;  the  shanks  and  toes  of  Black 
Cochins  shoiild  be  yellow  or  dusky  yellow,  but  they  are  usually 
black.  The  soles  of  the  feet  must  be  yellow;  this  is  one  of 
the  main  distinctions  between  the  Black  Cochins  and  the 
Black  Langshans;  the  soles  of  the  feet  of  Black  Langshans 
are  pinkish  white,  and  whenever  this  shade  occiu-s  in  the  feet 
of  Black  Cochins  it  is  evidence  that  they  have  been  tainted 
with  a  Langshan  cross. 

43.  Mating. — Black  Cochins  of  good  quality  may  be 
produced  by  mating  exhibition  fowls  of  the  best  quality. 
Shape  in  fowls  of  this  variety  is  of  first  importance.  Only 
those  that  are  perfect  or  nearly  perfect  in  the  Cochin  qualities 
should  be  mated.  If  males  and  females  that  have  rich,  glossy 
black  plumage  are  mated,  year  after  year,  red  is  likely  to  appear 
in  the  hackle  plumage  of  the  female  offspring,  and  is  almost 
certain  to  appear  in  the  plumage  of  the  males.  The  method 
usually  followed  is  to  mate  females  that  lack  the  richest  plu- 
mage color  with  males  that  have  the  richest  sheen  on  their  plu- 
mage. The  best  exhibition  males  are  usually  produced  from 
females  that  have  the  rich  green  sheen  in  the  plumage.  To 
correct  an  excess  of  sheen  in  the  plumage,  females  that  have 
little  or  no  sheen  are  used.  The  general  rules  for  mating 
Buff  Cochins  should  be  followed  in  mating  Black  Cochins, 
the  only  difference  being  in  the  selection  of  color. 


340  ASIATIC  FOWLS 


PARTRIDGE  COCHIN 


mSTORY    AND    DESCRIPTION 

44.  No  fowls  are  more  difficult  to  breed  to  perfection  than 
those  of  the  Partridge  Cocliln  variety.  They  must  be  not 
only  true  Cochins  in  form  and  feather,  but  their  color  must 
be  perfect  in  shades,  tints,  and  markings  as  well.  No  other 
variety  color  is  more  beautiful  when  the  shades  are  true  and 
well  assembled  and  none  less  attractive  when  of  inferior  qual- 
ity. The  value  of  fowls  of  this  variety  is  in  their  exhibition 
qualities.  Specimens  that  approach  perfection  in  form  and 
color  are  desirable  and  are  readily  disposed  of  at  high  prices. 
Those  of  medium  quality  and  those  below  this  grade  have  but 
little  value  other  than  for  egg  production  and  the  price  they- 
wiU  bring  in  market. 

45.  History. — Lewis  Wright,  of  England,  stated  that 
Partridge  Cochins  had  been  but  little  bred  in  England  up  to 
1870;  but  that  the  Rev.  Mr.  Marsh,  of  Massachusetts,  had 
given  special  attention  to  their  cultivation,  and  that  he  had  a 
strain  so  pure  and  true  that  they  improved  other  strains  into 
which  they  had  been  introduced.  Perhaps  the  best  Partridge 
Cochins  of  early  days  were  produced  by  Jefferson  Shaner,  of 
Pennsylvania.  He,  Philander  Williams,  of  Massachusetts, 
and  Mr.  Sherman  HartweU,  of  Connecticut,  did  more  for  the 
early  improvement  of  Partridge  Cochins  than  any  other  fan- 
ciers. After  form,  feather,  and  color  in  this  variety  had  been 
established,  they  were  finished  into  their  present  elegance  by 
George  W.  Mitchell,  of  Connecticut. 

46.  Description.— In  breed  characters,  the  partridge 
variety  is  the  same  as  other  Cochins;  color  differences,  how- 
ever, are  marked.  Breast  and  under-body  plumage  of  males 
should  be  a  rich,  glossy,  black;  the  fluff  and  feathers  about 
the  abdomen  should  be  black,  with  less  gloss  than  the  breast 
and  body  feathers;  the  black  should  extend  down  the  thighs 
to  the  hock  joint;  the  shank  and  toe  feathering  should  be 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  ,341 

black,  occasionally  overcast  with  brown;  the  deeper  the  shade 
of  black  on  the  breast  and  body  and  the  more  sheen  on  the 
surface,  the  greater  the  beauty  will  be.  The  eyes  of  all  Cochins 
should  be  red;  this  shade  is  commonly  spoken  of  as  bay,  a 
term  denoting  the  rich,  brilliant  eye,  a  natural  belonging  of  all 
Partridge  Cochins ;  this  color  is  better  described  as  red,  meaning 
a  bright  color  resembling  blood;  bay  is  a  reddish-brown  color. 

The  most  beautiful  shade  of  color  for  exhibition  males  is  a 
rich  deep  red,  the  feathers  being  striped  down  the  center  with 
rich,  glossy  black  so  dense  as  to  have  the  appearance  of  having 
been  laid  over  the  red;  the  black  stripe  shoiild  extend  down  and 
taper  to  a  fine  line  at  the  point  of  the  feather;  the  black  should 
not  extend  to  the  end,  but  should  be  surrounded  with  the  red. 
The  hackle  plumage  of  the  male  shoiild  bexed  or  dark  orange; 
the  color  of  the  plumage  on  the  back  of  the  male  should  be  a 
darker  shade  of  red  than  the  haclde;  this  is  called  reddish 
brown.  In  the  finest  fowls,  many  of  the  feathers  of  the  back 
of  the  male  are  striped  with  black  or  have  black  centers  that 
conform  to  the  shape  of  the  feather ;  the  saddle  plumage  should 
be  of  the  same  shade  as  the  hackles,  the  saddle  feathering  being 
striped  to  conform  with  those  in  the  hackle  plumage;  the  tail 
plumage  should  be  of  a  rich,  glossy  black,  with  sickles  and 
coverts  of  the  same  shade,  blazoned  with  green,  and  the 
plumage  growing  along  the  line  of  the  back  and  saddle  should 
be  edged  with  red;  the  front  of  the  wings  should  be  black;  the 
wing  bows,  red;  and  the  wing  primaries,  black  on  the  inside 
of  the  web  of  the  feather,  with  bay  edging  on  the  outside  of 
the  feather;  the  secondaries  shoiild  be  black  on  the  inside 
and  bay  on  the  outside  of  the  web  of  the  feathers;  a  well-defined 
bar  of  greenish  black  shoiild  separate  the  wing  bow  from  the 
wing  bay;  legs  and  toes  of  both  males  and  females  are  usually 
a  dusky  yellow. 

The  plumage  color  on  the  head  of  the  females  should  be 
brown;  the  neck  hackle,  red  or. dark  orange,  striped  or  centered 
with  black  that  conforms  to  the  shape  of  the  feathers.  It  is 
most  difficult  to  have  clearly  marked  feathers  in  the  hackle 
of  Partridge  Cochin  females;  frequently  the  center  of  the 
feather  is  penciled  like  the  body  plumage;  the  entire  body 


342  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §6 

plumage  should  be  mahogany  red,  penciled  with  lines  of  brown 
or  black,  which  conform  to  the  shape  of  the  feathers,  as  shown 
in  Fig.  6.  The  color  and  markings  should 
extend  over  the  fluffy  plumage  of  the  abdo- 
men and  down  to  the  end  of  the  toe  feathering ; 
the  main  tail  feathers  should  be  brownish 
black,  except  that  the  two  higher  feathers  may 
be  penciled  with  brown ;  it  is  not  imusual  for 
them  to  have  more  or  less  penciling  in  the 
entire  tail  plumage;  wing  primaries  should 
be  black,  shaded  with  brown;  the  inner  web 
of  the  secondaries  should  be  of  the  same  shade 
.^'^-  6  as  the  secondaries,  with  the  exception  that  they 
should  be  penciled  with  a  lighter  shade.  The  beauty  and  finish 
of  Partridge  Cochin  females  depends  on  their  having  one  even 
shade  of  color  throughout.  Color  and  markings  of  an  exhi- 
bition male  and  female  are  shown  in  the  color  illustration 
of  Partridge  Cochins.  

MATING    OF    PARTRIDGE    COCHINS 

47.  Standard  Mating. — Partridge  Cochins  of  both  sexes 
might  once  have  been  produced  of  an  average  quality  from 
exhibition  males  and  females ;  but  the  present  type  of  Partridge 
Cochin  for  exhibition  can  be  produced  only  from  double  mating. 
Those  ¥/ishing  to  have  a  flock  of  Partridge  Cochins  that  will 
be  valuable  for  producing  eggs  and  table  poultry  can  produce 
them  of  an  average  quality  by  mating  continually  for  the  pro- 
duction of  females,  without  regard  to  the  production  of  males. 
This  may  be  accomplished  by  mating  males  with  orange-red 
top  plumage  with  females  of  the  most  desirable  shade  of  color. 
To  improve  quality  in  the  offspring,  males  from  such  matings 
should  be  selected  from  time  to  time  and  be  mated  with  the 
best  females.  New  blood  for  a  Hne  of  breeding  of  this  kind 
should  be  introduced  through  a  cockerel  selected  from  a  pullet- 
breeding  strain.  The  fowl  selected  should  be  as  near  as  pos- 
sible to  Standard  description  of  an  exhibition  male.  Cockerels 
of  superior  quality  are  occasionally  produced  from  pullet- 
breeding  strains. 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  343 

48.  Double  Mating. — Double  mating  for  producing  exhi- 
bition offspring  in  this  variety  is  imperative.  Fowls  of  the 
finest  exhibition  quality  cannot  be  produced  to  any  extent 
from  standard  matings.  Matings  to  produce  good  cockerels 
must  have  in  them  males  which  in  every  way  meet  the  demands 
of  exhibition  quality;  the  top  color  must  be  as  described  for 
males;  to  improve  the  luster  of  pliimage  in  the  offspring,  rich, 
brilliant,  red  top  color  striped  with  glistening  black  will  be 
needed,  as  well  as  rich,  glossy,  black  body  plumage.  Such 
males  may  be  mated  to  large  females  that  have  perfect  form 
and  color;  but  to  be  certain  of  success  in  producing  males, 
the  strain  must  be  bred  in  line  for  a  nimiber  of  years  until  the 
females  have  been  brought  to  a  point  where  they  produce 
the  most  desirable  quality  of  exhibition  males.  Occasionally 
the  breeding  line  may  be  strengthened  through  the  introduction 
of  large  females  that  have  come  from  the  female  line,  and  which 
have  clean,  black  hackles  and  not  as  much  color  and  penciling 
as  exhibition  females.  To  produce  the  best  males  for  exhibition, 
hens  used  in  the  matings  must  have  hackles  that  are  edged  with 
red  and  are  solid  black  in  the  center. 

Exhibition  males  and  females  of  the  finest  quality  can  be 
produced,  in  this  variety,  only  by  many  years  of  careful  line 
breeding.  The  hen  shown  in  the  color  illustration  was  obtained 
by  breeding  in  line  an  established  strain  for  more  than  20  years. 
Both  males  and  females  produced  in  this  way  were  so  rich 
in  the  blood  of  the  female  line  as  to  have  the  shade  of  color 
that  would  naturally  follow  such  matings,  and  many  of  the 
males  were  penciled  in  body  plumage.  The  top  color  of  the 
males  was  of  a  much  lighter  shade  than  the  top  color  of 
exhibition  males.  The  difference  in  color  is  shown  in  the 
color  plate  of  Partridge  Cochins ;  the  pair  in  the  foreground  have 
exhibition  color  and  markings;  the  cockerel  in  the  background 
is  strong  in  the  pullet  breeding  line;  the  hen  with  him  is  well 
adapted  for  producing  cockerels.  In  selecting  fowls  for  the 
production  of  exhibition  pullets,  females  that  are  almost  per- 
fect in  size,  shape,  and  color  must  be  mated  to  a  male  of 
equal  quality,  chosen  from  a  pullet-breeding  strain;  line  breed- 
ing from  these  must  be  followed  closely,  year  after  year,  in 


344  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §  6 

conformity  with  the  rules  for  establishing  a  strain.  Size  can 
be  maintained  and  color  and  markings  improved  by  breeding 
exclusively  from  hens  mated  to  the  best  of  the  cockerels  each 
year  from  the  strain.  New  blood  should  never  be  introduced 
directly  into  a  pullet-breeding  strain  of  Partridge  Cochins, 
and  under  no  conditions  should  fowls  from  a  male-producing 
strain  be  mated  for  the  production  of  pullets ;  new  blood  should 
be  introduced  only  as  described  for  establishing  a  strain. 


WHITE  COCHIN 

49.  Description. — The  AVliite  Cochin  should  have  the 
beautiful  Cochin  form  and  pure  white  plumage;  there  must 
not  be  even  the  least  foreign  color  in  the  plumage.  Fowls  of 
the  white  variety  are  perhaps  the  easiest  of  all  Cochins  to  pro- 
duce, as  they  have  always  possessed  good  Cochin  form;  the 
difficulty  has  been  to  increase  the  amount  of  their  feathering 
and  fluff  without  producing  heavy  hock  plumage,  and  to  have 
their  plumage  pure  white  throughout.  They  have  always  had 
a  creamy  tinge  in  plumage,  and  formerly,  when  they  became 
old,  their  plumage  would  turn  lemon  yellow.  As  the  result 
of  careful  selection,  the  White  Cochins  are  now  of  such  a 
quality  that  they  rival  those  of  all  other  varieties  in  breed 
characters,  and  they  have  also  pure  white  plumage. 

50.  Mating. — ^White  Cochins  for  producing  exhibition 
offspring  must  possess  size,  shape,  and  color  of  the  highest 
quality,  because  they  have  no  value  in  the  exhibition  pen 
unless  they  are  as  nearly  perfect  as  it  is  possible  for  them  to 
be,  and  this  excellence  can  be  obtained  only  by  breeding  from 
parent  stock  that  has  the  most  desirable  qualities. 


§6 


ASIATIC  FOWLS 


345 


CUCKOO  COCHIN 

51.  The  Cuckoo  Cochin  is  seldom,  if  ever,  seen  in  Amer- 
ica. Some  cuckoo-colored  Cochin  Bantams  have  been  shown 
in  America,  and  a  few  have  been  exhibited  in  England.  A 
Cuckoo  Cochin  is  true  Cochin  in  type,  with  color  and  mark- 
ings like  those  of  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks.  The  variety 
has  come  from  matings  of  Black  and  White   Cochins,   the 


•■/?=? 


offspring  being  selected  and  remated  imtil  fairly  good  cuckoo 
color  has  been  produced.  The  fowls  have  never  been  per- 
fected enough  to  m.ake  them  desirable,  and  they  will  not  breed 
true  when  mated.  Cuckoo  color  is  the  name  used  in  England, 
and  it  describes  what  is  called  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  color 
in  America,  and  Coucou  in  France  and  Belgium. 


346  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §  6 


LANGSHAN 


ORIGIN,  DEVELOPMENT,  AND  BREED  CHARACTERS 

52.  Origin. — The  Langshan  fowls  originally  came  from 
a  province  in  China,  known  as  Langshan,  and  their  ancestry 
cannot  be  traced.  They  were  located  by  officers  of  the  Eng- 
lish army  in  1862  and  were  brought  to  England  10  years  later. 

53.  Development. — The  first  attempt  at  developing 
Langshans  was  made  in  the  English  colony  in  the  northern 
part  of  China.  Their  sterling  qualities  were  mentioned  in 
letters  that  were  sent  from  China  to  England,  and  later  some 
of  the  fowls  were  shipped  to  England. 

54.  Breed  Cliaracters. — There  are  three  types  of  Lang- 
shans— the  original,  or  Croad,  type,  as  bred  in  England;  the 
medium,  or  modem,  type,  preferred  in  America;  and  the  extreme 
type,  preferred  by  some  English  fanciers.  The  original  Croad 
type  is  shown  in  Fig.  7,  which  is  taken  from  an  illustration 
of  the  Langshans  first  brought  to  England;  the  extreme  type, 
preferred  by  some  English  fanciers,  is  shown  in  the  color 
illustration  of  White  Langshans;  the  modem,  or  American 
type,  is  shown  in  the  color  illustration  of  Black  Langshans. 


BLACK  LANGSHAN 


ORIGIN,    DEVELOPMENT,    HISTORY,    AND    DESCRIPTION 

55.     Origin. — The  modem  type  of  Black  Langshan  was 

made  by  the  poultrymen  of  America  and  England,  and  the 
many  changes  that  have  been  made  in  the  fowls  have  been 
brought  about  by  those  who  worked,  first,  to  produce  a  gen- 
eral-purpose fowl,   and  second,  to  make  them  beautiful  for 


§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  347 

exhibition  as  well  as  to  have  them  of  excellent  utility  quali- 
ties; but  the  extreme  type  has  been  made  more  for  ornamen- 
tation than  for  utility. 

56.  Development. — The  first  marked  development  of  this 
variety  was  made  in  England  by  Major  A.  C.  Croad.  Mrs. 
R.  W.  Sergeant  began  their  development  in  America,  and  later 
the  poultrymen  of  England  and  America  developed  them  into 
the  type  of  fowls  shown  in  the  color  illustration. 

57.  History. — There  has  been  continued  controversy 
relative  to  Black  Langshans  ever  since  their  coming  from 
China.  At  the  present  time  there  are  two  standard  descrip- 
tions for  them  in  England;  the  type  of  Langshan  bred  in  Amer- 
ica differs  so  materially  from  either  as  to  necessitate  still  another 
standard  description.  The  description  given  is  of  the  medium, 
or  modem,  type,  as  shown  in  the  color  illustration. 

58.  Description. — Black  Langshans  are  fowls  of  more 
than  average  size;  immature  fowls  weigh  from  6  to  7  pounds, 
and  mature  fowls  average  frorn  9  to  12  pounds,  according  to 
their  age  and  sex.  They  have  a  graceful  carriage  of  body; 
the  head  is  carried  well  back,  and  the  males  have  a  flowing 
hackle,  which  comes  down  over  the  shoulders,  but  is  not  so 
prominent  in  the  females.  They  are  active;  fairly  long  in  leg; 
wide  between  the  thighs;  and  have  great  length  of  breast; 
their  combs  are  single  and  have  from  five  to  six  points — ^five 
preferred;  their  eyes  are  large  and  brilliant,  and  of  a  brown  or 
hazel — the  darker  the  shade,  the  more  desirable.  They  are 
of  medium  length,  deep  through  the  body,  and  have  large 
breasts  in  comparison  with  their  general  makeup.  The  tail 
of  the  Langshan  male  is  carried  rather  high,  frequently  extend- 
ing a'bove  the  line  of  the  top  of  the  head;  it  is  very  prominent, 
and  well  furnished  with  sickles  and  tail  coverts.  The  wings 
are  carried  well  up ;  the  thighs  are  medium  in  length,  the  greatest 
length  occurring  in  the  shank  and  first  joint,  or  drumstick. 

Plumage  color  throughout,  in  both  males  and  females,  is 
black,  with  a  brilliant  beetle-green  sheen  overcasting  it;  the 
color  between  the  scales  of  the  shanks  and  on  the  bottom  of 
the  feet  is  pinkish  white.     The   females  have  a  beautifully 


348  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §  6 

formed  outline,  which  is  well  rounded  and  free  from  a  squatty 
appearance;  they  should  be  long  in  the  breast,  with  the  back 
rather  long;  the  tail  prominent  and  carried  upright,  the  top 
line  sometimes  being  carried  almost  in  line  with  the  top  of  her 
head;  the  comb  should  be  of  medium  size,  evenly  serrated, 
with  five  or  six  points;  the  main  tail  feathers  should  be  well 
spread,  and  the  length  of  legs  should  conform  to  the  length  of 
legs  in  the  males.  The  main  defects  in  this  variety  are  white 
in  the  tips  of  the  feathers  or  in  the  ear  lobes,  also  blue  or  purple 
barring  in  the  plimiage,  and  white  in  the  shank  and  toe 
feathering.  

MATING    OF    BLACK    LANGSHANS 

59.  Mating  for  Shape. — The  selection  of  Black  Lang- 
shans  for  the  breeding  pen  must  depend  on  the  type  of  fowls 
desired;  if  the  preference  is  for  the  tall  fowls,  which  are  recog- 
nized a^  the  English  type,  this  style  of  fowls  must  be  selected; 
if  the  American  or  the  Croad  type  is  preferred,  that  type  of  fowls 
must  be  selected  for  breeding  purposes.  The  females  should 
be  weU  matured,  and  from  2  to  3  years  old,  and  they  must 
continue  to  have  rich,  black  plumage  without  blemish.  The 
males  for  the  breeding  pen  must  be  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible 
in  shape  and  color. 

60.  Mating  for  Color. — Both  red  and  piirple  barring 
frequently  appears  in  the  plumage  of  offspring  from  fowls 
excessively  rich  in  sheen;  this  results  from  too  much  of  the 
rich  green  sheen  having  been  bred  into  the  offspring.  To  cor- 
rect this,  females  that  are  black  and  do  not  possess  any  amount 
of  sheen  should  be  mated  to  males  that  have  glossy  plimiage. 
Black  Langshans  of  the  best  quality  can  be  produced  only 
from  parents  of  equal  character  that  have  been  produced  by 
breeding  in  line  for  a  number  of  years  for  the  establishment 
of  a  strain.  Color  of  the  most  desirable  kind  in  males  will  be 
produced  from  hens  that  have  the  finest  green  sheen  overcast- 
ing their  entire  plumage,  mated  to  males  of  the  richest  color. 
Fowls  with  the  richest  sheen  will  be  produced  from  such 
parent  stock,  and  some  that  have  bars  of  purple  across  the 
pltimage  are  likely  to  result  from  such  matings.     The  best 


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§  6  ASIATIC  FOWLS  349 

females  are  likely  to  come  from  somber-colored  hens  mated 
with  males  that  have  plenty  of  sheen  in  their  plumage. 
Mature  hens  of  large  size  should  be  used  in  all  matings. 


WHITE  LANGSHAN 

61.  Origin. — The  White  Langslian  fowls  came  as  sports 
from  the  black  variety,  and  have  been  developed  from  that 
source  into  the  present  type  of  fowl.  They  were  first  noticed 
in  England  in  1885,  and  they  have  been  more  or  less  encouraged 
since,  both  by  English  and  American  fanciers. 

62.  History. — White  Langshans  were  first  shown  in  Eng- 
land, and  later  in  America.  Some  have  been  produced  in 
America  from  sports  that  came  from  the  black  variety.  They 
were  admitted  to  the  Standard  of  1893,  and  a  few  of  them  are 
seen  occasionally  at  the  largest  shows. 

63.  Description. — ^White  Langshan  fowls  should  have  the 
same  breed  characters  as  those  of  the  black  variety;  their  shanks 
and  toes  are  slaty  blue,  with  pinkish  white  showing  between 
the  scales  and  on  the  soles  of  the  feet;  their  plumage  is  said  to 
be  pure  white,  but  there  is  a  slight  bluish  tinge  in  the  plumage 
of  most  of  them,  and  although  they  have  been  much  im- 
proved in  plumage  color,  they  are  not  as  white  as  the  White 
Wyandottes. 

64.  Mating. — In  selecting  White  Langshans  from  which 
to  produce  exhibition  offspring,  only  fowls  that  are  true  to 
breed  characters  and  as  pure  white  in  pltmiage  as  possible 
should  be  used  in  the  breeding  pen.  The  color  of  the  plu- 
mage can  be  improved  in  this  variety  by  selecting  fowls  that 
have  very  pale-colored  shanks;  skin  as  white  as  possible; 
and  the  feathers,  web,  fluff,  and  quill  all  as  white  as  possible. 
The  shape  selected  must  be  the  same  as  described  for  Black 
Langshans. 


350  ASIATIC  FOWLS  §  6 


BLUE  LANGSHAN 

65.  The  Blue  Langsliaii  is  a  non-standard  variety,  and 
but  few  of  the  fowls  have  ever  been  produced. 

66.  Description. — Blue  Langshans  must  be  true  Lang- 
shans  in  form;  the  pltimage  of  the  neck  hackle,  back,  saddle, 
taU,  and  sickles  must  be  a  deep  slaty  blue,  with  a  sheen  over- 
casting the  feathers.  The  same  color  should  be  present  in 
the  wing  bows;  the  rest  of  the  plumage  should  be  slaty  blue, 
each  feather  laced  along  the  edge  with  a  darker  shade  that 
conforms  to  the  color  of  the  back.  The  contrast  in  color 
should  be  well  defined.  The  females  should  have  clear,  slaty- 
blue  plimiage  throughout,  each  feather  being  distinctly  laced 
with  dark  slate  color.  To  be  attractive.  Blue  Langshans  must 
conform  to  the  Blue  Andalusians  in  color  and  markings. 

67.  Mating. — Great  difficulty  will  always  be  experienced 
in  breeding  blue-plumaged  fowls,  this  color  having  been  pro- 
duced from  intermingling  black  and  white  varieties.  Many  of 
the  oft'spring  will  have  white  or  partly  white  plimiage ;  the  best 
success  will  be  obtained  by  mating  fowls  that  are  most  perfect 
in  color  and  by  selecting  the  best  of  the  offspring  and  remating 
them  to  improve  size  and  shape  and  make  better  and  better 
the  color  in  offspring.  The  same  method  must  be  applied 
for  the  production  of  Blue  Langshans  that  is  required  for 
producing  Blue  Andalusians.  Color  must  be  established  and 
be  kept  at  its  best  by  selection,  and  the  introduction  of  either 
black  or  white  immediately  destroys  the  pinity  of  plumage 
color.  

BUFF  LANGSHAN 

68.  Buff  Langshan  fowls  have  been  mentioned  from 
time  to  time  and  persons  who  have  seen  them  state  that  they 
are  indifferent  in  form  and  color.  It  has  been  thought  that 
they  might  be  buff-colored  offspring  from  Buff  Brahmas; 
others  think  that  they  have  been  produced  by  crossing  White 
Langshan  males  with  Buff  Cochin  females  that  were  long  in 
leg  and  had  but  little  shank  and  toe  feathering. 


BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN 
FOWLS 


BELGIAN 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  The  fowls  most  popular  in  Belgium  are  the  Braekel, 
the  Campine,  and  the  Malines.  Other  varieties  that  attract 
more  or  less  attention  in  that  locality  are  the  Bruges,  the 
Brabant,  and  the  Herve.  All  of  these  except  the  two  first 
mentioned  are  shown  in  Fig.  1.  This  illustration  shows,  also, 
the  Drente  and  the  Owl-Bearded  Dutch,  which  are  Dutch 
varieties;  the  La  Bresse,  which  is  a  French  variety;  and  the 
Lakenfelder,  which  is  a  German  variety.  During  the  past 
few  years  the  Belgian,  Dutch,  and  German  fowls  have  come 
into  increased  notice.  A  German  writer  claims  that  Belgium 
has  twelve  distinct  breeds;  HoUand,  nine;  and  Germany, 
twenty-three.  Although  but  few  fowls  of  these  breeds  have 
been  bred  in  America  or  England,  they  are  gradually  coming 
into  favor. 

The  most  popular  of  aU  of  the  fowls  mentioned,  outside  of 
their  own  countries,  are  the  Campine  and  the  Lakenfelder. 
The  others  have  received  very  little  attention  in  America 
and  but  little  more  in  England,  the  Lakenfelder  excepted. 
Of  all  the  fowls  included  in  the  group,  the  Malines  and  the 
La  Bresse  have  been  most  developed.  Following  these,  the 
Lakenfelder  and  the  Owl-Bearded  Dutch  have  been  devel- 

351 


Oiul-Bearded  DufcA 


§  7      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      353 

oped  in  the  order  mentioned.  Recently,  the  Belgian  breeds 
have  been  brought  into  public  notice,  and  as  a  resiilt  many 
of  them  have  been  taken  into  France,  England,  and  the  United 
States,  where  they  are  being  successftiUy  bred. 


BRAEKEL 

2.  Origin. — It  is  thought  that  fowls  of  the  same  general 
•characters  as  the  Braekel  existed  in  many  parts  of  Europe 
as  early  as  the  12th  century.  It  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that 
they  have  descended  from  the  same  type  of  fowl  that  pro- 
duced the  Penciled  Hambiirg;  and  that  they  are  largely  Italian 
is  indicated  by  their  general  breed  characters  and  the  style 
of  their  comb  and  ear  lobes. 

3.  Development. — The  Braekel  fowls  have  been  devel- 
oped in  that  part  of  Belgium  where  the  conditions  are  most 
favorable  to  poultry  growing.  Careful  breeding  has  devel- 
oped them  into  larger  fowls  than  the  Campines,  and  for  this 
reason  they  are  better  for  general  purposes. 

4.  History. — The  Braekel  fowls  are  bred  in  the  western 
part  of  Belgiimi  and  in  some  parts  of  France.  They  have  been 
carefully  bred  for  both  egg  production  and  market  poultry, 
but  not  so  carefully  bred  for  exhibition.  Braekel-Campine 
fowls  were  brought  from  Belgium  to  America  and  were  admitted 
as  two  varieties  to  the  Standard  of  1894;  they  were  dropped 
from  the  Standard  of  1898.  They  were  called  Silver  Campine 
and  Golden  Campine,  the  back  of  the  male  of  the  silver  variety 
being  a  silvery  white,  and  the  back  of  the  male  of  the  golden 
variety  being  darker  than  golden  bay. 

5.  Description. — In  body  formation,  the  Braekel  is  some- 
what like  a  Leghorn  or  a  Spangled  Hamburg  of  large  size.  The 
official  Standard  of  Belgiimi  says  that  the  comb,  face,  and 
wattles  of  both  male  and  female  shall  be  red;  beak,  blue  or 
horn  colored;  ear  lobes,  almond  shaped,  mother-of-pearl  color 
for  the  male  and  either  white,  bluish  white,  or  mother-of-pearl 
in  the  female;  head  of  fairly  good  size;  comb  of  male,  large, 
single,  with  five  or  more  points,  that  of  the  female  falling  over 


354     BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      §  7 

to  the  side  like  the  Leghorn  comb;  breast,  deep  and  full;  body, 
broad  and  of  medium  size;  back  inclined  slightly  toward  the 
tail ;  tail  of  the  male  well  spread,  sickle  feathers  about  one-half 
longer  than  the  main  tail  feathers. 

In  color,  the  hackle,  wing  bows,  and  saddle  of  the  male  of 
the  silver  variety  are  white,  with  some  specks  of  black  scat- 
tered through  them;  the  rest  of  the  body  plumage  should  be 
barred,  the  barring  extending  into  the  sickles  and  coverts  of 
the  tail.  The  hackle  of  the  female  is  white,  and  the  rest  of  the 
plimiage  is  barred,  the  barring  extending  into  the  tail  feathers. 
The  main  tail  feathers  of  both  are  more  or  less  spotted  with 
white.  The  distinguishing  features  between  the  Braekels  and 
the  Campines  are  the  white  back  of  the  Braekel  male,  the 
light-colored  breast,  and  the  very  dark  main  tail  feathers  of 
the  female;  both  the  male  and  the  female  Campine  is  barred 
over  the  entire  body,  with  no  white  on  the  back  of  the  male. 

Silver  Braekel  fowls  are  mixed  white  and  black.  The  black 
bars  of  the  body  plumage  should  be  at  least  three  times  as 
broad  as  the  white;  the  black  shoiild  glisten  with  sheen,  and 
the  white  should  be  of  a  grayish  tint  rather  than  pure  white. 
The  golden  Braekel  fowls  are  of  a  golden  bay  and  black  color. 
Other  varieties  of  Braekels  have  been  bred  in  Belgitim,  the 
most  prominent  of  which  are  the  Chamois  and  the  Blue.  The 
color  of  flesh  and  skin  in  all  varieties  is  white;  the  shanks  and 
feet  are  slaty  blue.  Males  average  from  6  to  8  pounds;  females 
from  4  to  6  pounds,  according  to  age. 

6.  Mating. — In  Belgium,  in  selecting  Braekel  fowls  for 
the  production  of  offspring  of  proper  body  formation,  care  is 
exercised  to  mate  only  such  fowls  as  have  a  plump  body  and 
a  long,  full  breast  that  carries  a  large  amoimt  of  breast  meat 
in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  fowl.  When  mating  for  variety 
colors,  males  and  females  that  conform  in  plumage,  shank,  and 
toe  coloring  are  selected;  white  top  coloring  in  males  of  the 
silver  variety  is  considered  highly  desirable.  Otherwise, 
Braekel  fowls  selected  for  mating  are  much  like  the  Campine 
fowls. 


§  7      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS     355 


BRUGES 

7.  Origin. — The  Bruges  fowls  have  been  bred  in  the 
northern  part  of  Belgium,  in  a  province  of  the  same  name,  for 
many  years.  No  one  seems  to  know  just  how  they  were 
originated.  Claims  are  made,  however,  that  they  were  pro- 
duced from  a  cross  between  the  Malay  fowls  brought  from 
India  and  the  fowls  common  to  Northern  Belgium. 

8.  Development. — The  Bruges  fowls  have  been  but  little 
cared  for  imtil  recently,  when  they  came  into  slight  notice  in 
other  localities,  and  the  poultry  growers  of  Belgitim  have 
developed  them  more  for  sale  as  new  breeds  and  varieties 
rather  than  for  any  other  purpose. 

9.  History. — No  definite  knowledge  as  to  the  history  or 
early  existence  of  the  Bruges  fowls  can  be  gleaned.  Up  to 
recently  they  were  but  little  known  outside  of  their  native 
district  in  the  northern  part  of  Belgiiitn. 

10.  Description. — There  are  iowc  known  varieties  of 
Bruges  fowls:  red,  black,  white,  and  blue.  All  have  the  gen- 
eral appearance  of  the  Malay  family,  yet  they  have  the  same 
traits  that  dominate  the  poultry  of  Belgiimi:  the  white  flesh 
and  skin,  the  leaden  color  of  shanks,  and  the  body  formation 
general  among  market  poultry.  The  comb,  wattles,  and  ear 
lobes  of  these  fowls  are  red;  the  combs  are  rather  small.  In 
weight,  the  males  average  from  8  to  10  pounds;  the  females, 
from  7  to  9  pounds,  according  to  their  age.  They  are  now  bred 
more  like  the  Cornish  Game  fowl  than  formerly. 

11.  Mating. — There  is  no  special  rule  for  the  mating  of 
Bruges  fowls  other  than  to  select  the  best  in  size,  shape,  and 
color,  with  uniform  color  of  shanks,  and  then  to  breed  their 
offspring  for  improvement. 


356      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      §7 


CAMPINE 

12.  Origin. — The  Campine  fowls  have  descended  from 
fowls  which  were  mentioned  by  Aldrovandi  as  Turkish  fowls. 
It  is  impossible  to  state  definitely  the  place  of  their  origin, 
but  it  is  probable  that  the  Campine,  the  Braekel,  and  the 
Penciled  Hamburg  fowls  have  descended  from  Italian  fowls 
that  were  scattered  throughout  the  populated  districts  of 
Belgiimi  and  other  near-by  countries. 

13.  Development. — In  Belgiimi,  the  Campine  fowls  have 
been  developed  principally  for  egg  production.  Some  Cam- 
pines  were  brought  into  England  about  1885,  and  since  then 
they  have  been  developed  in  England  for  exhibition  purposes. 
Two  varieties,  the  Golden  and  the  Silver  Campine,  have  been 
thus  developed.     Both  of  these  varieties  are  bred  in  America. 

14.  History. — In  Belgium,  the  name  Campine  is  given 
to  the  smaller  fowls  that  are  foimd  in  the  districts  of  La  Cam- 
pine. The  larger  fowls  of  the  same  type  foimd  in  other  parts 
of  Belgium  are  called  Braekel.  The  source  of  both  the  Campine 
and  the  Braekel  is  identical,  but  generations  of  breeding  from 
different  lines  and  under  different  conditions  of  nutrition  have 
caused  them  to  separate.  Experts  will  at  once  distinguish 
between  them;  those  not  so  well  informed  notice  only  a  dif- 
ference in  size.  A  Campine  Club  was  formed  in  England  in 
1899,  and  through  its  influence  a  marked  improvement  in 
exhibition  qualities  has  been  made.  Modem  Campine  fowls 
are  bred  in  America,  and  a  club  was  formed  in  their  interest 
diiring  the  spring  of  1911. 

15.  Description. — Campines  are  single-comb  fowls  with 
the  general  appearance  of  the  Penciled  Hambiirgs.  They  are 
larger  than  this  variety  of  Hamburgs,  and  both  varieties  have 
a  darker  shade  of  body  color.  The  English  Club  Standards 
requires  that  the  plumage  of  the  male,  including  the  tail,  be 
barred  or  marked  the  same  as  the  female  of  the  variety  to  which 
it  belongs.  The  ideal  Campine  fowl  of  the  silver  variety  has  a 
silvery-white  neck  hackle  and  barred  black-and-white  body 
plimiage.     A  fowl  of  the  golden  variety  has  a  golden  hackle 


§  7      BELGIAN.  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS     357 

and  barred  black-and-golden  body  plinnage.  The  golden  color 
of  fowls  of  this  variety  is  a  yellowish  bay,  in  contrast  with  the 
reddish  bay  in  the  color  of  the  female  Golden  Penciled  Ham- 
burg. The  black  bars  should  be  three  times  as  wide  as  the 
white  bars  in  the  silver  variety  and  as  the  golden  bars  in 
the  golden  variety.  The  tips  of  the  feathers  should  be  white 
in  one  variety  and  golden  in  the  other.  The  bars  should  be 
transverse  and  distinct,  and  the  lines  marking  the  divisions 
between  the  bars  should  be  straight  and  regular.  Straightness 
and  regularity  of  the  bars  is  of  more  importance  than  their 
direction.  The  black  should  be  rich  in  color  and  have  a  green 
sheen,  and  each  color  should  be  piire.  The  eyes  should  be 
dark;  the  comb,  face,  and  wattles,  red;  the  ear  lobes,  white. 
The  comb  of  the  male  must  be  upright  and  of  medium  size, 
neat,  and  well  serrated;  the  comb  of  the  female  should  be  of 
medium  size  and  should  fall  over,  or  be  inclined  to  fall  over, 
like  the  comb  of  the  Leghorn.  The  shanks  and  toes  of  both 
varieties  should  be  leaden  blue;  the  beak,  horn  colored;  and 
the  toe  nails,  dark  or  horn  colored. 

The  Silver  Campine  has  a  white  ground  color  and  black  bars ; 
the  Golden  Campine  has  a  golden  ground  color  and  black  bars. 
The  difference  in  these  two  varieties  is  the  groimd  color,  which 
is  white  in  one  and  golden  bay,  much  like  the  body  color  of 
the  Golden  Penciled  Hamburg  females,  in  the  other. 

The  chief  beauty  of  the  Campines  is  their  attractive  form 
and  clear  color.  A  male  of  either  variety  that  is  lacking  in 
richness  of  sheen  on  the  black  bars  is  of  but  little  value.  The 
hackle  of  both  the  male  and  the  female  of  the  silver  variety 
must  be  pure  white  and  free  from  spots  of  black,  brown,  or 
any  foreign  color.  The  main  tail  feathers  of  both  male  and 
female  should  be  more  or  less  barred.  The  sickles  of  the  male 
should  be  long  and  have  an  attractive  sweep,  or  curve,  and 
both  the  sickles  and  the  coverts  should  be  barred  with  black. 
Gray  spots  or  faint  bars  across  the  black  bars  must  not  appear 
in  either  the  male  or  the  female  of  the  silver  variety.  The 
white  must  not  run  into  the  black  bars  of  the  Silver  Campine, 
nor  rtiust  the  golden-bay  color  run  into  the  black  bars  of  the 
Golden  Campine. 


358      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS       §  7 

16.  Mating. — In  selecting  Campine  fowls  for  breeders, 
both  the  male  and  the  female  should  possess  the  best  Campine 
type  that  can  be  selected,  and  special  attention  should  be  given 
to  selecting  females  of  medium  size  and  males  of  fairly  large 
size  for  the  breed.  The  females  selected  shoiild  possess  good 
form  and  be  prolific  layers  of  large  eggs.  The  plumage  color 
of  both  should  be  piire  and  well  defined,  the  black  having  a 
rich  green  sheen,  and  the  tip  of  each  feather  should  be  well 
marked.  The  beauty  of  these  fowls  depends  largely  on  the 
bars  appearing  like  rings  about  the  body.  The  regularity  of 
these  rings  is  broken  by  the  shape  of  the  tip  of  the  feather. 
Fowls  having  horseshoe  markings  on  the  breast  shotdd  not  be 
used  for  breeding  purposes. 

In  selecting  breeding  fowls  for  mating  for  the  production 
of  Silver  Campines,  those  with  a  white  groimd  color  shovdd 
be  selected;  the  black  bars  should  be  almost  three  times  as 
wide  as  the  white  bars.  The  neck  hackle  of  both  males  and 
females  should  be  white.  The  rest  of  the  body  of  the  male 
and  the  female  shoiild  be  barred.  There  is  a  tendency  for  males 
to  have  white  backs  and  saddles.  To  overcome  this,  only 
males  of  the  proper  color  and  barring  and  that  have  dark  under 
plumage  shoiild  be  bred  from.  To  intensify  and  make  more 
brilliant  the  dark  bars,  only  males  and  females  having  dark 
color  in  the  imder  plumage  in  the  back,  breast,  and  body  should 
be  bred  from. 

In  mating  the  Golden  Campine,  the  body  plumage  color  of 
the  breeding  fowls  should  be  a  rich  golden  bay  throughout, 
barred  with  black;  the  neck  hackle,  golden  bay,  free  from 
barring  and  striping,  and  pale  or  yellow  color.  Otherwise 
they  should  have  the  same  general  breed  characters  and  color 
markings  as  the  Silver  Campines.  The  tmder  plumage  of  the 
Golden  Campine  should  be  darker  than  the  siuiace  plimiage. 
Golden  Campine  fowls  have  dark  imder  plumage,  but  to  secure 
the  best  surface  color,  golden  bay  next  to  the  skin,  darkening 
into  almost  black  at  the  upper  edge  of  the  fluff,  is  desirable. 


§  7      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS     359 


HERVE 

17.  Origin  and  Development. — The  origin  of  the  Herve 
fowls  is  hidden  in  obscurity.  The  only  indication  of  their 
ancestry  is  their  Hamburg-like  appearance.  These  fowls  have 
been  so  little  bred  that  it  cannot  be  said  that  they  have  been 
developed  beyond  a  meager  extent.  Fowls  of  this  type  have 
been  bred  in  Belgium  for  a  number  of  years.  They  are  but 
little  known  outside  of  their  own  territory,  and  are  mostly 
sought  after  by  amateur  exhibitors  who  are  pleased  with  their 
small  size  and  attractive  plumage  colors.  There  are  three 
varieties:  the  Black,  the  Blue,  and  the  Cuckoo  Herve.  The 
Blue  Herve  is  the  most  beautiful  variety. 

18.  Description. — The  Herve  is  a  fowl  of  small  size  not 
much  larger  than  a  bantam,  and  has  the  general  appearance  of 
the  Hamburg.  The  Blue  Herve  is  marked  like  the  Andalusian ; 
the  Black  Herve  is  of  brilliant  color  and  rich  in  sheen;  the 
Cuckoo  Herve  is  marked  like  the  Malines;  the  Black  Herve 
has  black  shanks  and  feet;  the  Blue  Herve  has  lead-colored 
shanks  and  feet ;  and  the  Cuckoo  Herve  has  pinkish-white  color 
in  the  shanks  and  feet.  The  males  weigh  from  3  to  4  poimds, 
the  females  from  2  to  3  pounds.  They  have  single  combs. 
The  color  of  the  combs,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  is  red.  The 
males  have  beautiful,  long,  flowing  sickles. 

19.  Mating. — In  mating  these  fowls,  the  same  care  in 
selection  must  be  given  to  the  Black  Herve  that  is  mentioned 
for  the  Black  Hamburg;  the  Blue  Herve  fowls  must  be  mated 
the  same  as  are  Andalusians;  and  the  Cuckoo  Herve  fowls 
the  same  as  the  barred  varieties.  In  all  varieties,  the  shanks 
and  toes  of  the  males  and  the  females  must  match  in  color. 


360     BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      §  7 


MALINES 

20.  The  Mallnes  fowls  of  Belgium  are  bred  for  market. 
They  are  large  and  have  gained  a  wide  reputation  under  the 
name  of  Poulardes  de  Bruxelles.  Many  varieties  of  Malines 
are  recognized  in  their  own  country,  and  in  England  one  variety 
has  been  accepted  as  an  exhibition  fowl.  The  varieties  most 
plentifiilly  bred  in  Belgium  are  the  Black,  the  Ermine,  the 
Cuckoo,  and  the  Turkey-Headed  Malines.  The  Turkey- 
Headed  Malines  is  so  called  because  of  its  peculiarly  shaped 

head  with  a  triple  comb,  such 
as  is  shown  in  Fig.  2.  The 
Cuckoo  Malines  is  the  variety 
that  has  been  most  commonly 
bred  for  exhibition. 

21.     Origin   and.  Devel- 
opment.— ^A  fowl  that  resem- 
bles   the    Malines    has    been 
known  for  several   centuries. 
Fig.  2  In  rcccnt  years,  some  fowls  of 

the  original  Malines  type  were  crossed  with  Langshan  and 
Antwerp  Brahma  fowls,  and  offspring  were  selected  of  a  color 
resembling  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rock.  The  Tiurkey-Headed 
Malines  came  natiurally  from  the  Langshan-Brahma  crosses. 

The  Malines  fowls  have  been  developed  into  large  size  and 
plimip  body  formation,  primarily  for  competing  with  fowls 
of  other  coimtries  in  the  markets  of  France  and  England. 
Although  the  fowls  of  the  various  varieties  of  this  breed  have 
done  remarkably  well  in  their  native  cotintry,  they  have  not 
done  so  weU  in  other  coimtries,  and  in  America  have  not  proved 
to  be  any  more  satisfactory  than  the  native  fowls. 

22.  Description. — ^The  head  and  neck  of  the  Malines 
fowls,  though  strong  and  well  proportioned,  are  not  excessively 
large.  They  have  the  least  amount  of  waste  of  any  fowls 
of  their  size.  In  breast  and  body  formation,  they  are  broad, 
deep,  and  full;  the  back  is  long,  flat,  and  broad  across  the  loins; 
the  thighs  are  strong,  well  proportioned,  and  set  well  apart, 


§  7      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS     361 

and  the  breast  hangs  low  between  them.  The  body  formation 
of  the  MaHnes  is  said  to  be  almost  square,  and,  when  finished 
for  market,  the  fowls  have  approximately  that  shape.  In 
carriage  and  general  appearance,  the  M alines  are  not  unlike 
the  Brahmas.  According  to  their  sex,  they  weigh  from  8  to  10 
pounds  at  the  age  of  10  months. 

The  color  of  the  Cuckoo  Malines  for  exhibition  is:  Beak, 
white  or  horn  colored;  comb,  face,  wattles,  ear  lobes,  and  eyes, 
red;  shanks  and  toes,  white.  The  plimiage  resembles  that  of 
an  indifferently  marked  Barred  Plymouth  Rock. 

23.  Mating. — In  mating  Malines  fowls  for  the  produc- 
tion of  exhibition  offspring,  general  breed  characters  should 
have  the  greatest  consideration.  The  rules  for  color  and 
mating  for  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  should  be  applied  to  fowls 
of  the  Cuckoo  variety,  and  those  having  the  desired  color 
should  be  separated  and  mated.  Where  body  proportions 
only  are  desired,  fowls  that  are  not  lacking  in  breast  and  body 
formation  should  be  selected  and  mated. 

In  selecting  to  produce  black  offspring,  Malines  of  the  proper 
form  and  size  and  having  perfectly  black  plumage  must  be 
selected.  The  Ermine,  or  Light  Malines,  which  has  plumage 
color  like  the  Light  Brahma,  should  be  selected  for  Malines 
shape  and  color  resembling  the  Light  Brahma.  Fowls  of  pure 
white  pltmiage  must  be  selected  to  produce  the  White  Malines, 
which  is  a  new  variety. 

MISCELLANEOUS  BELGIAN 

24.  Other  breeds  of  Belgian  fowls  are  the  Antwerp  Brahma, 
the  Ardenne,  the  Brabant,  the  Flemish,  and  the  Huttegem.  The 
fowls  of  these  breeds  have  been  bred  in  comparatively  small 
nxnnbers. 

25.  The  Antwerp  Bralima  has  been  bred  in  Belgium 
mostly  for  crossing  with  other  fowls,  and  has  never  been  bred 
for  exhibition.     It  has  been  described  among  the  Asiatic  fowls. 

26.  The  Ardenne  fowls  are  formed  somewhat  like  the 
garne  fowls.  They  have  single  combs  of  medium  size,  and  their 
plumage  is  somewhat  like  that  of  the  Black-Breasted  Red 


362      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      §  7 

Game  fowls.  The  females  are  darker  in  plimiage  than  those 
of  the  game  varieties.  In  weight,  they  average  from  1  to 
6  poimds,  according  to  their  age  and  sex. 

27.  The  Brabant  fowls  are  not  unlike  Houdan  fowls  of 
inferior  quality.  They  are  large  and  of  heavy  body  formation. 
There  are  several  varieties,  the  principal  ones  being  the  Black, 
the  Speckled  Black,  and  the  White.  Coming  as  they  do  from 
the  locality  where  Hamburg,  Crevecoeur,  and  La  Fleche  fowls 
have  been  bred,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that  a  fowl  having 
the  crest,  beard,  and  comb  of  the  Crevecoeur,  the  body  forma- 
tion of  the  Braekel,  and  the  color  and  markings  of  all  shoidd 
be  produced. 

28.  The  Flemish,  fowls  are  cuckoo  colored,  or  barred, 
like  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks.  Were  it  not  for  the  pecu- 
liarities of  white  flesh  and  skin,  and  pinkish-white  shanks  and 
toes,  they  might  be  called  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks  of 
Belgium. 

29.  The  Huttegem  fowls  are  thought  to  have  descended 
from  offspring  created  in  developing  the  market  poultry  of 
Belgium.  They  are  bred  in  three  variety  colors,  the  Gold, 
the  Barred,  and  the  Light  Brahma.  They  have  white  skin 
and  flesh,  and  bluish-white  legs.  They  lay  tinted-shelled 
eggs,  which  indicates  the  Asiatic  blood  in  their  make-up.  They 
are  somewhat  like  the  Malines,  and  have  both  single  and  rose 
combs. 


§  7      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS     363 


DUTCH 


HAMBURG 

30.  Origin. — The  Hamburg  fowls  are  the  most  impor- 
tant Dutch  fowls.  Aldrovandi,  an  Italian  naturalist,  was  the 
first  to  mention  them.  His  first  writings  relative  to  this  breed 
were  published  in  1599,  in  which  he  called  them  Turkish,  and 
his  description  of  them,  though  not  complete,  stated  that  they 
were  white,  spangled  with  black  spots,  and  that  their  feet  were 
tinged  with  blue.  Another  hen  was  described  as  one  of  the 
same  color,  except  that  instead  of  being  white,  she  was  of  a 
yellowish  color,  spangled  with  black,  her  feet  being  blue. 
Although  this  description  is  rather  incomplete,  the  illustra- 
tions, consisting  of  wood  cuts,  that  accompanied  it,  indicated 
that  these  fowls  were  the  forenmners  of  the  present  Hamburg 
fowls.  Two  hens,  one  golden  and  one  silver,  shown  by  these 
old  illustrations,  were  clearly  marked  with  the  peculiar  fleshy 
rose  comb  of  the  Hamburg,  terminating  in  a  sharp  point  behind. 
Mr.  Dixon  states  that  this  comb  is  seen  in  no  other  variety 
of  fowl,  and  that  it  is  well  described  by  apicem  in  vertice  gerit, 
which  translated  into  English  means,  "It  carries  a  wisp  of 
flame  for  its  crest." 

Edward  Brown,  of  England,  states  that  Hamburg  fowls  as 
we  now  have  them  are  traceable  to  two  distinct  sources.  The 
two  Spangled  Hamburg  varieties  and  the  Black  Hamburg 
variety  originated  in  Great  Britain  and  have  been  bred  in  the 
North  of  England  for  two  centuries,  if  not  longer;  the  Pen- 
ciled Hamburg  came  from  the  Netherlands.  These  fowls  have 
been  changed  considerably  since  their  introduction.  It  is 
necessary  to  deal  separately  with  the  Spangled,  the  Black, 
and  the  Penciled  Hamburg  varieties.  Mr.  Brown  further 
states  that  the  peculiar  comb  of  the  Hamburg  is  not  found 
on  fowls  of  any  other  race  that  can  be  traced,  and  that  the 


364      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      §  7 

assumption  is  not  unreasonable  that  the  British  Spangled 
Hamburgs  are  descendants  of  the  fowls  described  by  Aldro- 
vandi. 

The  claim  has  been  made  by  W.  B.  Dickson,  of  England, 
that  the  Hamburg  is  a  variety  of  the  Paduan  (Polish)  fowl. 
The  same  opinion  appears  in  the  early  writings  of  Bonington 
Moubray,  who  wrote  of  poultry  prior  to  the  18th  century. 
In  describing  the  Polanders  (now  the  Polish  fowls),  he  wrote: 
"They  are  sometimes  called  Everlasting  Layers."  This  was 
one  of  the  early  names  for  the  Hamburg  fowls.  Undoubtedly, 
the  modem  type  of  the  Black  and  the  Spangled  Hamburg 
was  made  in  England,  and  that  of  the  Penciled  Hamburg 
varieties  in  Holland.  Evidently,  all  Hamburg  fowls  originated 
in  Italy.  Those  that  came  to  Britain  in  the  early  days  were 
freely  bred  in  the  northern  counties  of  England,  and  the  Black 
and  Spangled  Hamburg  varieties  were  derived  from  them. 
Others  were  taken  to  Holland,  and  we  find  recorded  by  Bon- 
ington Moubray,  prior  to  1816,  the  following  statement: 
"Besides  the  Polanders,  there  is  a  small  variety  now  imported 
from  Holland  called  'Every-Day  Layers,'  which  are  everlast- 
ing layers."  From  these  the  Penciled  Hamburg  varieties  have 
been  developed. 

As  previously  mentioned,  the  Spangled  Hamburg  was  devel- 
oped in  England.  In  writing  of  them,  the  Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon, 
A.  M.,  of  Norfolk,  England,  says:  "This  beautiful  variety 
is  distinguished  from  other  members  of  the  same  family  by  its 
large  topknot  being  colored  instead  of  white,  and  by  the  black 
and  conspicuous  muffle,  or  ruff,  on  the  throat  and  under  the 
beak.  There  are  two  kinds  of  them,  the  golden  spangled  and 
the  silver  spangled,  the  ground  of  the  feathers  of  the  former 
being  a  rich  yellow,  approaching  an  orange  red,  with  black 
spots  or  spangles ;  the  silver  spangled  differs  from  the  pre- " 
ceding  by  having  the  ground  of  the  feathers  a  silvery  white." 
The  early  illustration  of  the  Hamburg  fowls  described  by  Dixon 
indicates  that  they  might  have  belonged  to  the  Paduan  rather 
than  to  the  Turkish  breed  mentioned  by  Aldrovandi.  In 
writing  further  of  the  Hamburg  fowls,  Mr.  Dixon  states  that 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Keighley,  which  is  in  Yorkshire  on  the 


§  7      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS     365 

border  of  Lancashire,  the  Bolton  Grays  are  called  Chittaprats. 
He  also  states  that  they  were  known  as  Bolton  Grays,  Golden 
Pheasants,  and  E very-Day  Layers. 


BLACK    HAMBURG 

31.  Origin. — The  Black  Hamburg  fowls  were  bred  and 
exhibited  as  Black  Pheasants  in  about  the  year  1800,  when 
they  were  admitted  at  a  village  show  in  Lancashire.  At 
that  time  they  were  thought  to  be  of  pure  Hamburg  origin. 
It  is  believed  that  they  originated  from  the  black  offspring 
of  full-tailed  Silver  Moonies.  They  were  crossed  with  Black 
Spanish  to  improve  the  size  and  white  in  their  ear  lobes.  The 
cross  was  detrimental,  from  the  fact  that  white  appeared  in 
the  face  of  many  offspring,  and  their  heads  were  coarse. 

32.  Developraent. — The  modem  Black  Hamburg  has 
been  developed  from  the  original  Black  Mooney.  The  quality 
of  these  fowls  has  resiilted  from  long  continued  selecting, 
mating,  and  breeding  for  perfection  of  quality  and  beauty  of 
plumage.  The  Black  and  the  Spangled  Hamburg  varieties 
are  so  nearly  related  as  to  make  their  history  and  development 
almost  identical. 

33.  History. — In  writing  of  the  Hamburg  fowls,  Charles 
Holt,  of  England,  Honorary  Secretary  of  the  Hamburg  Club, 
states:  "They  were  exhibited  long  before  the  Birmingham 
show  was  known;  they  were  then  called  Black  Pheasants,  and 
were  exhibited  for  what  I  think  must  now  be  called  the  cele- 
brated 'copper  kettle.'  "  This  is  supposed  to  have  been  a 
hanging  kettle  that  was  used  at  that  time  as  a  champion  cup 
for  all  Hamburg  fowls.  The  meetings  were  held  in  the  taverns 
of  the  town.  The  birds  were  brought  in  cages  much  like  those 
used  now  for  parrots.  The  exhibits  were  usually  held  during 
a  half  holiday  and  continued  into  the  evening.  All  exhibitors 
were  judges;  they  decided  among  themselves  which  were  the 
best,  and  the  awards  were  made  with  good  feeling.  A  feast 
and  jollification  usually  followed  the  decision.  A  picture  of 
an  early  Hamburg  show  in  which  the  copper  kettle  may  be 


r* 


§  7      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS     367 

seen  is  shown  in  Fig.  3.     Later,  the  Hamburg  fowls  were  taken 
up  by  fanciers. 

34.  Description. — An  idea  of  the  general  contour  of  all 
Hamburg  fowls  can  best  be  gained  by  reference  to  the  color 
plates.  Comb  and  head  points  are  of  even  greater  importance 
in  the  Black  Hamburg  than  in  other  varieties.  The  beautifully 
formed  comb  and  head  points,  with  their  rich,  brilliant  color,  are 
like  a  crown  of  scarlet  and  white  adorning  a  fowl  of  beautiful 
formation  and  of  a  plumage  color  of  glistening  black  through- 
out. A  beetle-green  sheen  overcasting  the  entire  plumage  brings 
out  the  beauty  and  richness  of  the  black,  and  in  contrast  with 
the  beautiful  sheen  is  the  scarlet  color  of  comb  and  the  head 
points  embellished  with  large,  snowy- white  ear  lobes  as  soft 
as  kid.  The  ear  lobe  must  be  enamel  white,  soft,  delicate, 
and  well  placed  against  the  side  of  the  face.  The  shanks  and 
toes  must  be  leaden  blue;  the  eyes,  red;  and  the  beak,  black 
or  horn  colored. 

35.  Mating. — In  mating  Black  Hamburg  fowls,  the  best 
success  wiU  be  obtained  by  breeding  in  line  for  many  years 
for  the  purpose  of  establishing  form  and  color.  To  do  this, 
the  finest  fowls  that  can  be  found  must  be  mated,  and  their 
offspring  remated.  This  process  must  be  followed  continually 
without  the  least  deviation.  Henry  Pickles,  of  Earby,  Eng- 
land, who  was,  perhaps,  the  best  breeder  of  Hamburg  fowls 
of  his  day,  stated  that  he  had  maintained  a  mating  of  them  for 
25  years.  He  said:  "When  the  cock  failed  me,  his  best  son 
took  his  place.  When  one  of  the  hens  failed  me,  her  own 
best  daughter  took  her  place;  and  in  this  way  for  more  than 
25  years  I  have  bred  them  better  and  better  each  year,  until 
the  extreme  has  been  reached,  and  no  more  color  can  be  per- 
mitted." In  mating  for  black,  males  and  females  of  the  richest 
color  with  the  greatest  amoimt  of  sheen  should  be  mated  until 
red  makes  its  appearance  in  the  plumage  of  the  offspring. 
When  this  occurs,  hens  of  somber-colored  plumage  must  be 
introduced  to  overcome  the  influence  of  the  red. 

36.  Diagram    for   tlie    Mating   of   Hamburg   Fowls. 

The  breeding  of  no  one  breed  or  variety  has  had  attention 


368      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      §  7 

equal  to  that  given  to  the  breeding  of  Hamburg  fowls  in  Eng- 
land. In  writing  of  successful  methods,  the  Honorary  Sec- 
retary of  the  Hamburg  Club  of  England  states  that  the  prin- 
ciple shown  in  the  diagram  of  Fig.  4  is  the  best  that  can  be 
adopted  for  the  mating  of  these  fowls,  as  the  method  can  be 
followed  year  after  year  with  continued  success,  and  it  might 
well  be  used  for  mating  fowls  of  other  breeds. 


1910 
MAMBURG      COCK 

1910 
HAMBURG   HEN 

Selected  From 
Best  English  Strain 

PHze  Winner 
in  Boston  Show 

C"^-,^ 

^ 

" 

1911 
COCKEREL 
and 
1910 
HEN 

1911 

PULLETS 

and 

1910 

COCK 

1  1 

\\ 

1912 

COCKEREL 

and 

1911 

HENS 


1913 


Pig.  4 


The  diagram  is  somewhat  like  the  mating  chart  shown  in 
Standard-Bred  Poultry,  Part  2,  the  main  difference  being  that 
the  fowls  mated  the  first  year  are  connected  by  a  single  black 
line;  those  mated  the  second  year  are  connected  by  two  dotted 
lines ;  and  those  mated  the  third  year  are  coimected  by  three 
dotted  lines.  This  process  could  be  continued  for  as  many  years 
or  generations  as  might  be  necessary.  It  will  be  noticed  that 
the  foiindation  of  the  strain  was  a  pair  of  carefully  selected  fowls. 


§  7      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS     369 

It  is  thought  that  4  years  of  breeding  in  this  way  will  estab- 
lish a  strain  of  fowls  that  will  have  superior  breeding  qualities. 
This  will  be  true,  of  coiu-se,  only  when  the  original  fowls  are 
perfect  and  the  female  is  a  producer  as  well. 

In  order  to  be  successful,  a  fancier  must  not  only  be  familiar 
with  the  method  but  must  be  expert  in  selecting  each  year 
for  mating  the  best  fowls  for  the  purpose  intended.  It  is 
necessary,  under  this  system,  to  keep  accurate  records  and  to 
mark  the  fowls  by  toe  marks  or  identification  bands. 


GOLDEN    PENCILED    HAMBURG 

37.  Origin. — ^Prior  to  1785,  penciled  fowls  came  to  Eng- 
land from  Holland,  and  thence  to  America.  Before  being 
divided  into  separate  classes,  they  were  known  by  many  con- 
fusing names.  Moubray  called  them  Every-Day  Layers. 
When  they  first  came  from  Holland,  they  were  called  Penciled 
Dutch;  as  they  were  scattered  throughout  the  world,  they 
were  known  as  Bolton  Grays,  Bolton  Bays,  Creoles,  Creels, 
Chittaprats,  and  Pheasants.  It  was  not  until  the  fowls  had 
been  separated  into  classes  that  the  Hamburgs  became  known 
as  a  distinct  breed  and  a  standard  was  established  for  them. 
There  were  at  first  two  varieties  of  the  Hamburg,  the  light  and 
the  dark,  which  were  later  known  as  the  silver  and  the  golden. 
Fowls  of  the  golden  variety  were  selected  and  bred  until  they 
had  been  produced  with  color  and  markings  so  distinct  as  to 
leave  them  without  rivals,  and  they  were  then  named  Golden 
Penciled  Hamburg. 

38.  Development  and  History. — ^The  Golden  Penciled 
Hamburg  fowls  have  been  developed  by  establishing  strains 
as  described  for  the  Black  Hamburg.  The  chief  aim  has  been 
to  separate  the  golden  bay  from  the  silver,  and  to  have  the 
barring  of  the  female  so  regular  as  to  give  it  the  appearance  of 
having  been  laid  on  with  geometrical  precision,  and  the  males 
ideal  in  color  and  free  from  foreign  color. 

The  history  of  all  Hamburgs  as  exhibition  fowls  can  be  told 
best  in  connection  with  the  Silver  Penciled  Hamburg. 


370     BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      §  7 

39.  Description. — The  general  formation  of  the  Golden 
Penciled  Hamburg  is  shown  in  the  color  plate  of  the  penciled 
variety.  In  the  Golden  Penciled  Hamburg  male,  the  color  of 
the  neck  hackle  and  breast  is  a  bright  bay  or  reddish  bay, 
and  the  body  is  reddish  bay.  In  females,  the  body  color  is 
clear  reddish  bay,  each  feather  being  barred  with  black.  The 
English  Club  Standards  describes  them  in  both  sexes  thus: 
Beak,  horn  colored;  eyes,  red;  comb,  face,  and  wattles,  red; 
ear  lobes,  white;  legs,  leaden  blue.  In  the  males,  the  neck 
hackle,  back,  saddle,  shoulder,  wing  bows,  breast,  and  upper 
parts,  are  a  bright -red  bay;  also  the  wing  coverts,  and  the  bot- 
tom web,  or  visible  part  of  the  feather,  is  generally  black  or 
coarsely  penciled ;  the  tail  is  black,  tinged  with  green ;  the  sickle 
feathers  and  tail  coverts  are  of  a  solid,  rich,  transparent  green 
surface  color  and  black  foundation,  and  are  laced  all  around 
with  a  narrow  strip  of  gold.  In  the  female  of  the  Golden 
Penciled  Hamburg  the  neck  hackle  is  of  a  bright  golden  color; 
all  the  rest  of  the  plumage  of  the  fowl  is  of  a  bright,  golden 
color,  each  feather  being  penciled  distinctly  and  evenly  across 
with  fine  parallel  lines  of  a  rich  green  hue.  The  penciling  and 
the  intervening  lines  should  be  of  the  same  width;  the  sec- 
ondaries should  be  penciled  as  much  as  possible,  but  the 
markings  are  naturally  a  little  coarse. 

40.  Mating. — A  male  that  has  the  finest  exhibition  quali- 
ties, especially  good  head  points,  mated  with  hens  of  equal 
quality  and  from  the  same  strain  from  which  the  males  have 
come,  will  prove  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  breeding  fowls 
for  the  production  of  the  exhibition  Golden  Penciled  Hamburg. 
It  is  almost  a  waste  of  time  to  attempt  to  breed  Hamburg  fowls 
of  sterling  quality  without  having  stock  fowls  that  are  not 
only  excellent  in  themselves  but  near  akin  and  bred  in  line 
from  the  best.  In  breeding  for  color,  the  richest-colored  fowls, 
as  described  in  the  English  Standard,  should  be  selected. 
The  ear  lobes  on  some  of  the  finest  males  are  frequently  almost 
as  large  as  a  silver  half  dollar,  as  smooth  as  glass,  and  as  white 
as  the  most  beautiful  enamel.  The  lobes  of  the  hen  should 
be  as  large,  comparatively,  as  those  of  the  male.     The  exquisite 


§  7      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS     371 

shape  of  the  Hamburg  comb  cannot  be  lost  sight  of  in  select- 
ing fowls  for  breeding.  They  should  have  eyes  of  a  rich, 
bright  red;  the  shanks  and  toes  should  be  of  a  leaden  color 
and  as  smooth  as  polished  brass.  More  definite  information 
relative  to  the  necessities  of  mating  Hamburg  fowls  is  given 
in  treating  of  the  Silver  Penciled  Hamburg. 


GOLDEN    SPANGLED    HAMBURG 

41.  Origin. — The  Golden  Spangled  Hamburg  fowls 
descended  from  about  the  same  soiirce  as  the  Silver  Spangled 
Hamburg.  To  avoid  unnecessary  repetition,  and  because  the 
history  of  the  Hamburg  is  more  closely  connected  with  that 
of  the  Silver  Hamburg  than  with  that  of  the  Golden  Hamburg, 
a  more  complete  statement  of  their  origin  will  be  found  in  the 
discussion  of  the  Silver  Spangled  Hamburg. 

42.  Development  and  History. — Golden  Spangled  Ham- 
burg fowls  have  been  developed  from  the  early  Mooney  and 
Yorkshire  Pheasants.  Lewis  Wright  has  stated  that  there  was 
in  Lancashire  a  variety  called  Golden  Mooney.  These  fowls 
were  smaller  than  the  Silver  Moonies,  but  in  color  and  mark- 
ings they  excelled  the  latter.  It  is  thought  that  the  Golden 
Spangled  Hamburg  fowls  have  been  developed  from  them. 

The  history  of  the  Golden  Spangled  and  the  Silver  Spangled 
Hamburg  is  nearly  identical  and  is  told  in  connection  with  the 
Silver  Spangled  Hamburg. 

43.  Description. — The  Golden  Spangled  Hamburg  fowls 
should  be  described  to  meet  the  requirements  of  both  the 
American  and  English  Standards.  Being  a  fancier's  fowl  and 
having  been  made  and  perfected  by  the  fanciers  of  England, 
more  than  passing  attention  must  be  given  to  the  difference 
of  description,  so  as  to  give  full  information  concerning  their 
dual  existence.  The  same  description  as  to  shape  will  serve 
for  the  Spangled,  Black,  and  Penciled  Hamburg  varieties. 
Notwithstanding  this,  they  differ  materially  in  their  general 
make-up,  the  Spangled  Hamburg  being  heavier  in  body  than 
the  Penciled  Hamburg  fowls. 


372     BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      §  7 

The  Penciled  Hamburg  fowls  are  strictly  Italian  or  Mediter- 
ranean in  form,  and  more  like  the  Leghorn  in  their  general 
make-up  than  like  any  other  fowl.  The  Spangled  Hamburg 
fowls  are  larger  than  those  of  the  penciled  varieties  and  more 
like  general-purpose  fowls.  The  females  of  the  penciled  vari- 
eties are  small  in  comparison  to  the  modem  type  of  the  spangled 
variety. 

The  American  Standard  describes  the  Hamburgs  as  of  medium 
size  with  rose  combs  of  beautifiil  formation,  well  serrated,  and 
not  so  large  as  to  extend  over  the  width  of  the  head  on  either 
side.  The  comb  should  be  square  in  front,  the  spike  of  the 
comb  tapering  and  extending  out  behind  in  fair  proportion 
to  the  rest  of  the  comb.  The  back  should  be  of  medium  length, 
broad  in  front,  and  gradually  sloping  to  the  tail;  the  breast 
should  be  broad,  the  body  round,  the  fluff  short,  the  wings 
large  and  carried  rather  low.  The  English  Standard  says 
that  wings  are  large  and  neatly  tucked  up.  The  American 
Standard  demands  that  the  flowing  tail  of  the  Hamburg  shall 
be  carried  at  an  angle  of  40  degrees  and  the  English  Standard 
calls  for  an  angle  of  45  degrees.  In  both  Standards,  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  hen  conforms  to  the  description  of  the  male. 

The  English  Standard  describes  the  comb  as  square  in  front, 
gradually  tapering  toward  the  back,  and  ending  with  a  long 
spike  pointing  in  a  straight  line  with  the  surface  of  the  comb. 
The  comb  should  be  firmly  and  evenly  set  on  the  head.  The 
top  level  is  covered  with  points,  and  the  important  feature  in 
this  is  that  the  spike  shall  point  in  a  straight  line  from  the  sur- 
face of  the  comb.  In  the  description  of  head  points,  the  Eng- 
lish Standard  is  less  explicit,  requiring  the  head  to  be  neat  in 
formation ;  the  beak  is  to  be  short  and  small ;  the  eyes,  fiill  and 
round;  the  wattles,  thin,  well  rounded,  and  free  from  wrinkles; 
the  neck,  of  medium  length  and  nicely  arched;  the  hackle,  very 
fuU,  of  a  good  length,  and  coming  well  over  the  shoiilders.  As 
to  body  formation,  the  breast  is  described  as  prominent  and 
round;  the  back,  of  medium  length;  the  wings,  large  and  neatly 
tucked  up;  the  tail,  of  good  length  and  carried  at  an  angle  of 
about  45  degrees;  the  sickles  and  secondaries,  broad,  plenti- 
ful, and  sweeping;  the  thighs,  somewhat  short  but  neat;  the 


§  7      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS     373 

shanks,  small  boned  and  medium  in  length;  the  toes,  slender 
and  well  spread.  The  Standard  requires  that  the  head  shall 
be  carried  erect,  the  chest  well  out  and  forwards,  and  that  the 
whole  appearance  shall  be  lively  and  graceful.  ■  In  the  pen- 
ciled variety,  the  male  should  weigh  about  5  pounds;  in  the 
other  varieties,  the  male  should  be  somewhat  heavier.  The 
plumage  should  be  very  profuse.  Penciled  Hamburg  females 
should  weigh  about  4  pounds;  the  females  of  other  varieties 
should  be  heavier.  In  other  particulars,  the  hen  should  con- 
form in  an  effeminate  way  to  the  male. 

The  color  description  of  both  sexes  of  the  Golden  Spangled 
Hamburg,  according  to  the  English  Standard,  is  as  follows: 
Beak,  horn  colored;  eyes,  comb,  face,  and  wattles,  red;  ear 
lobes,  white;  legs,  leaden  blue.  In  the  male,  the  hackle  is  of 
a  rich  golden  bay,  each  feather  marked  down  the  center  with  a 
stripe  of  beetle  green;  the  back  and  saddle,  golden  bay,  almost 
maroon,  with  a  dagger-shaped  tip  at  the  end  of  each  feather. 
The  wing  bars  should  be  two  in  number,  consisting  of  rows  of 
large  green  spangles  running  parallel  across  each  wing  with  a 
gentle  curve,  each  bar  distinct  and  perfect;  the  secondaries 
are  golden  bay,  tipped  with  large,  round,  green  spangles  that 
form  what  are  called  steppings;  the  breast  and  under-body 
plumage  are  of  a  rich  golden  bay,  and  each  feather  is  tipped  at 
the  end  with  a  round  greenish-black  spot  or  spangle  (the 
greener  the  better),  small  near  the  throat  and  increasing  in 
size  toward  the  thighs,  but  never  so  large  as  to  overlap;  the 
main  tail  feathers,  the  sickle  feathers,  and  the  coverts  are  of  a 
rich,  transparent  green  on  a  black  foundation. 

In  the  hen,  the  head  is  black  and  bay  mixed;  the  neck  hackle, 
a  rich  bay,  each  feather  marked  down  the  center  with  a  green 
stripe;  in  the  saddle,  shoulders,  wing  bows,  breast,  and  under 
body,  every  feather  is,  of  a  rich  bay  tipped  with  lustrous  green 
spangles;  each  feather  should  be  as  long  as  possible,  but  never 
so  large  as  to  overlap ;  the  wing  bars  should  be  two  in  number, 
sometimes  three,  consisting  of  rows  of  large  beetle-green 
spangles  running  parallel  across  the  wing  in  a  gentle  curve, 
each  bar  distinct  and  separate;  the  secondaries  of  the  wing 
should  be  as  in  the  male;  the  main  tail  feathers  should  be 


374     BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      §  7 

black,  tinged  with  green;  the  coverts  should  be  spangled. 
In  some  instances  only  a  slight  lacing  of  gold  is  seen  around 
the  feathers.  With  reference  to  the  English  Standard,  one 
of  the  prominent  writers  of  England  states  that  in  the  Golden 
Spangled  Hamburg,  the  tail  of  the  hen,  and  the  main  tail, 
sickles,  and  coverts  of  the  male  are  a  rich  glossy  green-black 
without  spangles ;  the  hackles  of  both  sexes,  and  the  saddle  and 
back  of  the  males  are  tipped  instead  of  having  spangles.  The 
American  Standard  has  the  same  requirements  for  the  male, 
but  the  coverts  of  the  female  are  required  to  have  greenish- 
black  spangles. 

44.  Mating. — In  mating  Golden  Spangled  Hamburg  fowls, 
success  will  depend  on  the  quality  of  the  fowls  used  in  the 
matings.  It  will  be  useless  to  attempt  to  produce  offspring 
of  even  medium  quality  unless  the  stock  is  of  the  best  and 
selected  from  a  strain  the  fowls  of  which  produce  weU  and  the 
males  and  females  of  which  are  of  the  same  line  of  breeding.  In 
the  production  of  pullets,  hens  of  the  highest  exhibition  quality 
should  be  mated  with  the  best  males  that  can  be  obtained  from 
a  pullet-breeding  strain.  From  these,  a  line  of  pullet-breeding 
males  and  females  can  be  bred,  and  they  must  be  kept  separate 
as  carefully  as  woiild  be  required  for  the  production  of  any 
of  the  parti-colored  varieties.  Cockerels  will  be  produced  in 
much  the  same  manner,  except  that  an  exhibition  male  of  the 
highest  quality  must  be  mated  with  females  descended  from 
such  a  line  of  breeding.  In  other  words,  to  succeed  well  in  the 
production  of  Golden  Spangled  Hamburg  fowls,  they  must  be 
Hne  bred  from  foundation  stock  of  the  highest  quality,  and 
the  matings  must  be  kept  separate;  new  blood  must  be  intro- 
duced only  through  a  female  of  like  quality  introduced  into 
the  male  line  of  breeding. 

SILVER    PENCILED    HAMBURG 

45.  Origin. — In  writing  of  the  origin  of  the  Silver  Pen- 
ciled Hamburg,  W.  B.  Tegetmeier,  F.  Z.  S.,  of  England, 
states  that  the  penciled  and  spangled  fowls,  although  frequently 
described  together,  are  so  essentially  different  that  they  should 
be  regarded  as  distinct  varieties.     The  white  body,  the  black 


§  7      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS     375 

markings,  the  greenish-black  tail,  and  the  blue-tinged  legs  are 
all  characters  that  prove  Aldrovandi's  knowledge  of  them 
when  he  called  them  Gallina  Turcica,  or  Turkish  fowl.  He 
states  also  that  the  silver  penciled  variety  descended  from  the 
Bolton  Grays,  and  the  golden  variety  from  the  Bolton  Bays, 
and  that  the  many  names  applied  to  them  were  of  local  origin 
and  referred  to  the  original  Penciled  Dutch,  as  they  were  called 
when  they  first  came  to  England. 

46.  Development  and  History. — The  Silver  Penciled 
Hamburg  has  been  developed  from  the  crude  originals  into 
beautiful  type.  The  color  description  of  the  present  in  con- 
trast with  the  color  description  of  early  days  tells  of  their 
development. 

The  history  of  the  Silver  Penciled  Hamburg  is  so  closely 
connected  with  that  of  the  other  varieties  as  to  make  it  possible 
to  give  the  history  of  all  under  that  of  the  spangled  variety. 

47.  Description. — The  description  of  the  originals  of 
the  Penciled  Hamburg  might  be  compared  with  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  modem  variety.  The  early  Penciled  Hamburgs 
were  fowls  of  small  size,  compactly  hxult,  and  very  active. 
The  body  plumage  of  the  females  of  one  variety  was  white, 
penciled  with  transverse  bars  of  black,  and  the  body  plumage 
of  females  of  the  other  variety  was  golden,  penciled  with  black. 
The  neck  hackle  of  the  silver  variety  was  perfectly  free  from 
dark  markings;  the  males  were  free  from  these  markings,  their 
plimiage  color  being  either  white  or  bay.  The  earliest  color 
illustrations  of  the  golden  variety  show  the  males  of  one  even 
golden  bay  without  deviation,  except  in  the  tail,  which  seemed 
to  be  bronze  and  black.  The  neck  of  the  female  conformed 
in  color  to  the  neck  of  the  male.  The  entire  body  was  irregu- 
larly marked  with  black  lines. 

The  present  standard  for  color  in  the  males  is  as  follows: 
The  hackle,  back,  saddle,  shoulders,  wing  bows,  breast,  and 
under  parts  are  silvery  white;  the  wing  coverts  have  the  bot- 
tom web,  or  visible  part,  of  each  feather  white,  and  the  top 
web,  or  invisible  part,  of  each  feather  coarsely  penciled  with 
dark;  the  secondaries  are  as  white  as  possible,  the  top  web 


376      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      §  7 

being  generally  black  or  coarsely  penciled;  the  tail  is  black 
tinged  with  green;  the  sickles  and  tail  coverts  are  of  a  rich, 
transparent  green  surface  color,  black  laced  all  around  with 
a  narrow  stripe  of  white.  In  the  female,  the  hackle  is  silvery 
white;  the  breast,  thighs,  back,  saddle,  shoulders,  wing  bows, 
wing  coverts,  tail,  and  tail  coverts  are  silvery  white,  each 
feather  being  distinctly  and  evenly  penciled  straight  across 
with  fine  parallel  lines  of  a  rich  green  hue — the  penciling  and 
the  intervening  ground  color  being  of  the  same  width;  the 
secondaries  should  be  penciled  as  much  as  possible,  the  mark- 
ings a  trifle  coarse.  The  description  embodied  in  both  the 
American  and  English  Standards  conforms  fairly  well  to  the 
preceding  description;  but  as  seen  in  the  exhibition  pen,  many 
of  the  males  are  striped  about  the  fluff  the  same  as  in  the 
golden  penciled  variety.  Many  of  the  males  and  females  show 
markings  in  the  hackle,  and  the  black  extends  into  the  back 
of  some  of  the  males. 

48.  Mating. — The  Silver  Penciled  Hamburg  fowls  must 
be  mated  the  same  as  the  Golden  Penciled  Hamburg.  Although 
better  offspring  can  be  produced  from  them  by  single  matings 
than  is  the  case  with  the  Golden  Penciled  Hamburg,  the  most 
beautiful  fowls,  especially  females,  are  bred  from  exhibition 
hens  of  the  highest  quality  mated  to  males  that  have  been  bred 
in  line  from  such  females  mated  to  males  that  naturally  come 
from  them.  To  maintain  the  beautiful  white  plumage  in  males, 
exhibition  males  should  be  mated  to  females  from  a  cockerel- 
breeding  line.  

SILVER    SPANGLED    HAMBURG 

49.  Origin. — The  origin  of  the  Silver  Spangled  Ham- 
burg can  best  be  discussed  in  connection  with  that  of  several 
of  the  other  Hambiirg  varieties.  For  many  years  fowls  known 
under  the  several  names  of  Gold,  Silver,  and  Black  Pheasants, 
Gold  and  Silver  Moonies,  and  Red  Caps  were  bred  in  the  north- 
em  part  of  England.  All  of  these  were  undoubtedly  of  'the 
same  general  character,  differing  in  color  only.  When  the 
poultrymen  of  England  began  to  exhibit  these  fowls,  the  inter- 
est in  them  increased,  and  they  were  separated  into  the  three 


f  ^^±'^ 


z 
5 


§  7      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS     377 

varieties,  the  Silver  Spangled,  the  Golden  Spangled,  and  the 
Black  Hamburg.  The  theory  that  the  Black  Hamburg  came 
as  black  offspring  from  the  Silver  Moonies  has  been  accepted. 
The  Golden  Spangled  and  the  Silver  Spangled  Hamburgs  were 
made  by  mingling  the  blood  of  Silver  Pheasants  with  that  of 
the  Silver  Moonies,  thus  producing  better  spangles  in  the  sil- 
ver variety.  The  Golden  Pheasants  and  Golden  Moonies  were 
used  for  developing  the  golden  variety.  The  Penciled  Hamburg 
fowls  were  produced  as  distinctive  offspring  from  the  Bolton 
Grays  and  the  Bolton  Bays  by  selecting  the  best  of  them  and 
breeding  in  line  for  more  than  fifty  generations. 

50.  Development. — The  Silver  Spangled  Hamburgs  have 
been  developed  from  the  crude  originals.  More  skill  and  more 
persistent  attention  have  been  given  to  the  production  of  the 
several  varieties  of  Hambiirgs  than  has  been  expended  on  any 
other  breed.  As  the  result,  a  fowl  has  been  created  that  has 
a  well-established  type  and  variety  color,  which  is  beyond  com- 
parison when  of  the  best,  but  which  reverts  almost  to  the  level 
of  a  mongrel  when  neglected. 

51.  History. — More  attention  was  given  in  early  days  to 
the  Hamburgs  than  was  bestowed  on  any  other  breed  of  fowls, 
the  Cochin  excepted.  In  the  publications  of  Wingfield  & 
Johnson,  in  1853,  are  shown  a  color  illustration  of  Penciled 
Hamburg  fowls  and  a  black  and  white  illustration  of  the 
spangled  variety.  Feathers  illustrating  their  markings  and  a 
standard  description  of  them  were  included  in  the  publications. 
In  the  race  for  popiilarity,  the  Cochin  was  their  rival  from  the 
beginning.  The  best  fanciers  have  given  great  attention  to 
the  Hamburg  fowls.  English  and  Canadian  fanciers  have 
succeeded  better  with  Ha,mbiirgs  than  have  the  fanciers  of  the 
United  States,  perhaps  because  they  have  given  them  more 
attention.  Hamburg  fowls  have  never  been  such  favorites 
in  America  as  in  England.  Boston,  New  York,  and  the  larger 
exhibitions  of  Canada  are  the  places  in  America  where  Ham- 
burg fowls  have  been  shown  to  any  extent. 

52.  Description. — The  Silver  Spangled  Hamburg  fowls 
conform  in  every  way  to  the  description  of  the  Golden  Spangled 


Fig.  5 


§  7      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS     379 


Hamburg,  except  that  the  body  color  of  the  Silver  Spangled 
Hamburg  is  white  and  the  spangles  are  black.  The  main  dif- 
ference will  be  found  in  the  back  and  saddle.  In  the  Silver 
Spangled  Hamburg  males,  the  feathers  in  these  parts  are  white, 
with  a  small,  black,  dagger-shaped  tip  at  the  end.  In  the  males 
of  the  Golden  Spangled 
Hamburg,  the  feathers  of 
the  saddle  are  golden  bay, 
each  feather  being  striped 
down  the  center  with  green. 
The  hackle  of  both  males 
and  females  of  the  Silver 
Spangled  Hamburg  is  sil- 
very white,  and  each  feather 
is  ticked  with  a  small, 
black,  dagger-shaped  tip. 
In  the  Golden  Spangled 
Hamburg,  the  hackles  of 
both  males  and  females 
are  marked  down  the  cen- 
ter with  a  stripe  of  black. 

5  3 .     Mating .  —  In  the 

mating  of  Silver  Spangled 
Hamburgs,  fowls  of  the 
finest  quality  must  be  se- 
lected— those  that  have 
been  bred  in  line  from  the 
best  that  can  be  produced. 
It  is  better  to  depend  on 
well-selected    fowls     bred  Fig.6 

from  the  best  breeding  strains  than  to  select  from  strains  of 
unknown  quaUty.  A  trio  of  Silver  Spangled  Hamburg  fowls — 
composed  of  a  male  of  the  highest  exhibition  quality  and  two 
females,  one  of  exhibition  form  and  color  and  the  other  perhaps 
too  dark  for  exhibition — selected  from  a  strain  known  to  be 
productive  of  the  best,  will  answer  well  for  producing  both 
males  and  females  of  exhibition  quality. 


380      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      §  7 

Sample  feathers  of  Silver  Spangled  Hamburg  males  and 
females  are  shown  in  Figs.  5  and  6.  In  Fig.  5  (a)  is  shown  a 
Silver  Spangled  Hamburg  male  hackle  feather;  in  (b),  a  male 
saddle  feather;  in  (c),  a  male  main  tail  covert  feather;  in  (d), 
a  male  lower  tail  covert;  in  {e),  a  male  lower  breast  feather; 
in  (/),  a  male  thigh  feather;  in  (g),  a  male  secondary  feather; 
and  in  Qi),  a  male  wing-bar  feather.  In  Fig.  6  (a)  is  shown  a 
Silver  Spangled  Hamburg  female  hackle  feather;  in  (6),  a 
female  saddle  feather;  in  (c),  a  female  back  feather;  and  in 
(d),  a  female  breast  feather. 

No  other  color  and  markings  are  so  difficult  to  produce  as 
those  of  the  plumage  of  the  Silver  Spangled  Hamburg,  and  it 
is  almost  a  necessity  to  establish  a  separate  line  of  breeding 
for  males  and  females,  for  only  in  this  way  can  the  best  exhi- 
bition Hamburg  fowls  be  produced. 

These  illustrations  were  made  from  feathers  taken  from 
Silver  King  and  his  mate,  which  were  two  noted  prize  winners. 
Although  they  had  a  much  lighter  shade  of  color  in  the  under 
plumage  than  is  demanded  by  the  Standard,  these  two  fowls 
were  admitted  to  be  among  the  best  of  their  kind. 


WHITE    HAMBURG 

54.  Fowls  having  the  same  general  formation  as  the  sil- 
ver penciled  variety,  and  with  white  plumage,  have  been  bred 
as  a  separate  variety.  They  are  supposed  to  have  come  as 
white  offspring  from  the  silver  penciled  variety,  and  are  now 
known  as  the  Wlilte  Hamburg.  Although  they  are  recog- 
nized as  a  standard  variety  both  in  America  and  in  England, 
they  have  never  been  bred  to  a  perfection  equal  to  that  of  the 
other  varieties.  This  variety  has  the  same  kind  of  comb, 
face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  as  other  Hamburg  fowls ;  the  beak, 
shanks,  and  toes  are  of  a  bluish  shade,  and  the  plumage  is 
pure  white  to  the  skin,  including  the  shafts  of  the  feathers. 
To  breed  fowls  of  this  variety  of  attractive  quality  requires 
careful  selection  for  Hamburg  type,  Hamburg  comb,  and 
beautiful  white  ear  lobes,  clean,  clear  color  in  the  shanks  and 
toes,  and  the  purest  white  plumage. 


§  7      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS     381 


NON-STANDARD    VARIETIES    OF    HAMBURG 

55.  There  are  two  varieties  of  Hamburg  besides  those 
described,  the  Buff  Hamburg  and  the  Speckled,  or  Mottled, 

Hamburg,  both  of  which  may  be  considered  as  non-standard 
varieties.  The  Buff  Hamburg  was  formerly  recognized  as  a 
standard  variety  in  England;  the  Speckled,  or  Mottled,  Ham- 
burg was  not.  The  Buff  Hamburg  may  have  plimiage  of  any 
color  from  lemon  to  rich  golden  buff.  Of  whatever  shade  the 
plumage  color  may  be,  it  must  be  uniform  throughout.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  describe  the  difference  between  the  Buff 
Hamburgs  and  the  Rose-Comb  Buff  Leghorns  were  it  not  that 
the  Hamburg  has  blue  shanks  and  a  more  correct  body  for- 
mation. There  are  so  few  of  the  Buff  Hambtirgs  as  to  make 
them  almost  obsolete.  The  Buff  Hamburg  fowls  for  breeding 
purposes  must  be  carefully  selected  for  Hamburg  type  and 
for  an  even  shade  of  buff  throughout.  The  color  must  be 
improved  in  the  same  way  as  for  other  buff  fowls. 

The  Speckled,  or  Mottled,  Hamburg  has  evidently  been 
developed  from  badly  marked  offspring  of  the  Spangled  Ham- 
burg. Fowls  of  this  variety  have  been  sparingly  bred;  they 
are  never  seen  in  America,  and  only  occasionally  in  other  coun- 
tries. They  have  broken-colored  plumage,  black  and  white, 
more  like  the  Mottled  Java  than  the  Houdan  or  Hamburg. 
They  may  be  Mottled  Javas  with  rose  combs. 


RED  CAP 

56.  Origin. — It  is  claimed  by  early  writers  that  the  fowl 
from  which  the  Red  Cap  fowls  originated  existed  in  the  14th 
century.  Martin  Doyle,  who  compiled  an  "Illustrated  Book 
of  Poultry,"  which  is  a  revision  of  his  book  issued  in  1854, 
gives  as  his  authority  for  this  statement  Chaucer's  descrip- 
tion in  "The  Nonne's  Preeste's  Tale."  In  the  early  writings 
of  .Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon,  before  quoted.  Red  Cap  fowls  are  classed 
as  a  variety  of  Hamburg.  The  early  writers  that  mention 
Red  Cap  fowls  claim  them  to  be  mongrel  Golden  Spangled 
Hamburg. 


382      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      §  7 

57.  Development. — Red  Cap  fowls  received  but  little 
attention  until  after  the  Hamburg  had  been  well  developed, 
and  the  Red  Cap  fowls  were  taken  up  more  as  a  separate  breed 
than  as  a  variety  of  the  Hamburg.  Following  this,  they  were 
bred  more  carefully,  and  for  a  short  time,  beginning  about 
1890,  or  soon  thereafter,  they  had  a  temporary  popularity  that 
attracted  attention  to  them  for  a  few  years. 

58.  History. — Henry  Belden,  of  England,  one  of  the  best 
informed  poiiltrymen  of  his  time,  stated  that  Red  Cap  fowls 
were  coarsely  bred  Golden  Spangled  Hamburg  fowls;  and  that 
the  size  of  the  comb  and  body,  rather  than  Hamburg  propor- 
tion, had  been  developed.  Other  Englishmen  prominent  in 
poiiltry  breeding  agree  with  him;  still  others  claim  that  they 
were  produced  by  crossing  Golden  Spangled  Hamburg  with 
Old-English  Game  fowls.  In  early  days,  the  Red  Cap  fowls 
were  very  plentiful  in  and  about  Yorkshire,  England.  They 
were  bred  almost  exclusively  for  egg  production  and  for  mar- 
ket poultry.  They  were  considered  better  for  egg  production 
at  that  time  than  the  Leghorn  fowls.  They  were  known  under 
the  names  of  Pheasant  fowls,  Copper  fowls,  Yorkshire,  and 
Derbyshire  Red  Caps.  Very  few  of  them  have  been  kept  in 
America. 

59.  Description. — The  following  description  of  Red  Cap 
fowls  was  written  for  the  "English  Book  of  Poultry,"  1902,  by 
Albert  E.  Wragg,  Edenson,  Bakewell,  England:  "The  Red 
Cap  male  is  a  fine-bodied  bird  of  noble  appearance,  and  nothing 
could  be  more  ornamental  than  his  symmetrically  shaped  comb 
full  of  a  number  of  long  spikes,  with  the  leader  behind.  It 
should  be  weU  carried,  firm  and  straight,  and  stand  well  off 
the  eyes.  The  comb  should  be  as  large  as  can  be  comfortably 
carried  by  the  bird.  In  size  it  should  not  greatly  exceed 
5|  inches  in  length  and  Sf  or  3  inches  in  width.  The  hen  is 
shapely,  very  active,  and  a  good  forager;  as  a  layer  she  is 
second  to  none." 

The  main  character  of  the  Red  Cap  is  the  immense  rose 
comb,  which  stands  high  and  has  great  width;  the  ear  lobes 
are  red.     In  the  male,  the  hackle  and  saddle  feathers  are  rich 


§  7   BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS  383. 

red,  striped  with  black ;  the  breast  and  tail  are  black ;  the  back 
is  red,  marked  with  crescent-shaped  black  spangles.  The 
hen's  tail  is  black;  the  hackles  are  red,  striped  with  black;  the 
body  plumage  is  reddish-brown,  marked  with  black  crescent- 
shaped  spangles.  The  large-sized  spangles  resemble  those 
found  on  the  old  Yorkshire  Pheasants. 

The  American  Standard  describes  the  Red  Caps  as  fowls 
of  large  size.  The  cock  weighs  7|  poimds;  the  cockerels  and 
hens,  6  pounds;  the  pullets,  5  poimds.  In  form,  they  are 
Hamburg  of  large  size.  The  males  have  horn-colored  beaks; 
the  eyes,  face,  comb,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  are  red.  Accord- 
ing to  the  American  Standard,  the  neck  is  blue-black,  each 
feather  being  edged  with  red  and  the  hackles  shading  off  to 
black  at  the  base.  In  the  English  Standard,  the  head  is 
described  as  red,  the  hackles  are  red,  each  feather  marked 
down  the  center  with  a  stripe  of  black.  According  to  both 
Standards,  the  back  is  red,  spangled  with  black;  the  saddle  is 
red,  each  feather  being  striped  with  black;  the  wing  bows  are 
a  rich  red;  the  coverts  are  red,  each  feather  ending  in  a  black 
spangle  forming  a  black  bar  across  the  wing;  the  primaries 
and  secondaries  are  red,  tipped  at  the  end  with  black ;  the  breast 
and  under  body  are  black;  and  the  tail  and  hangers  are  black, 
with  a  brilliant  green  sheen. 

The  Red  Cap  females  are  described  as  having  the  comb, 
face,  wattles,  ear  lobes,  and  eyes,  red;  the  beak,  horn  colored; 
the  shanks  and  toes  of  both  male  and  female,  leaden  blue  or 
slate  color.  The  head  and  hackle  of  the  female  is  red,  accord- 
ing to  the  English  Standard,  and  brown,  according  to  the  Amer- 
ican Standard;  the  back  and  breast,  deep,  rich  reddish  brown, 
free  from  smuttiness,  each  feather  being  tipped  with  a  black 
or  bluish-black  crescent-shaped  spangle.  The  color  and  mark- 
ings of  the  breast,  back,  and  wings  should  be  as  uniform  as 
possible;  the  primaries  and  secondaries,  according  to  the  Eng- 
lish Standard,  are  red,  regularly  tipped  at  the  end  with  black; 
according  to  the  American  Standard,  the  primaries  are  dull 
black,  with  an  edging  of  brown  on  the  lower  web;  the  sec- 
ondaries have  the  upper  web  black,  the  lower  web  black, 
with  an  edging  of  brown,  each  feather  being  tipped  with  a 


384     BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      §  7 

black  or  a  bluish-black  spangle;  the  tail  is  black;  the  coverts 
are  brown,  ending  with  a  black  or  bluish-black  tip;  the  color 
of  the  tinder  plirmage,  in  both  males  and  females,  is  dark  or 
leaden  blue.  The  combs  are  described  as  not  so  large  as  is 
mentioned  by  Mr.  Wragg. 

60.  Mating. — The  proper  spangle  of  the  Red  Cap  is 
crescentic  in  shape,  not  round.  The  spangles  shoiild  be  as 
dark  as  it  is  possible  to  have  them;  the  body  of  the  female 
should  be  a  deep,  rich,  reddish  brown,  each  feather  not  regu- 
larly spangled  as  the  feathers  of  the  Hamburg  are,  but  irreg- 
ularly tipped  with  crescent-shaped  black  tips  of  irregular  size. 
The  breast  of  the  male  is  of  a  rich,  glistening  black  with  a  pur- 
plish hue.  In  mating  for  the  production  of  exhibition  fowls, 
combs  of  large  size  should  be  encouraged,  but,  above  all,  they 
should .  be  of  perfect  form  and  set  straight  on  the  head ;  no 
leaning  to  one  side  is  permissible.  Males  of  the  best  exhibition 
form  and  color  mated  to  females  of  like  character  are  the  types 
that  should  be  mated  for  the  production  of  exhibition  Red 
Cap  fowls.  Unless  they  are  exquisite  in  form  and  have  beauti- 
ful combs  and  glistening  plumage,  the  colors  of  which  stand 
out  bold  and  true,  they  are  of  no  value.  To  gain  this,  a  strain 
must  be  as  well  established  for  them,  such  as  will  be  needed  for 
the  production  of  Hamburg  fowls  of  the  finest  type. 

Red  Cap  fowls  are  worthy  of  more  attention  than  they  receive ; 
they  are  excellent  market  poiiltry ;  they  grow  quickly  into  fairly 
good  size,  and  are  continual  layers  during  winter  and  summer; 
the  eggs  are  of  good  size  and  usually  have  white  shells,  though 
at  times  they  are  slightly  tinted. 


NON-STANDARD  BREEDS  OF  DUTCH 

61.  The  three  breeds  selected  from  among  the  several  that 
are  exclusive  to  their  coimtry  are  the  Breda,  the  Drente,  and  the 
Owl-Bearded  Dutch.  The  Breda  might  be  classed  as  an  Asiatic, 
the  Drente  as  a  Mediterranean,  and  the  Owl-Bearded  Dutch 
as  a  general-purpose  fowl.  All  have  white  flesh  and  skin, 
dark  or  slate-blue  shanks,  and  their  eggs  have  white  shells. 


§  7      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      385 

All  of  them  are  bred  in  several  varieties ;  the  Drente  is  bred  in 
all  varieties  common  to  the  Mediterranean  family. 

Other  Dutch  fowls  not  mentioned  resemble  PoHsh  and  Pen- 
ciled and  Spangled  Hamburgs.  They  are  not  known  by  these 
names,  but  in  general  appearance  they  are  so  much  like  inferior 
specimens  of  the  fowls  named  that  this  seems  to  be  nearest  to 
a  brief  description  that  can  be  made  of  them. 


62.  The  Breda  fowls  originated  in  Holland.  The  fact 
that  the  males  weigh  from  6  to  9  pounds  and  the  females  from 
5  to  6^  pounds  would  indicate  that  they  were  largely  descended 
from  some  one  of  the  Asiatic  family.  This  breed  was  at  one 
time  popular  in  Holland.  A  few  of  them  were  brought  to 
America  and  are  spoken  of  by 
Mr.  Lewis,  in  his  poultry  book 
of  1871,  as  a  fowl  of  mediimi 
size  with  a  peculiar  head,  which 
was  destitute  of  comb  or  crest, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  7.  They  were 
bred  in  their  native  land  for 
market  ptirposes,  but  of  late 
years  they  have  been  almost 
lostsight  of.  They  are  of  several 
varieties,  the  most  common  of 
which  are  barred,  black,  blue, 
and  pure  white.    They  are  some-  Fig.  7 

what  larger  in  size  than  are  the  Plymouth  Rocks.  They  have 
been  known  in  England  and  America  as  the  Guelder  or,  as 
commonly  called,  Guelders.  Early  writers  state  that  to  pro- 
duce barred  or  cuckoo  color,  the  black  Guelder  cock  should 
be  mated  with  the  white  Guelder  hen.  They  are  sparingly 
feathered  on  the  outside  of  the  shanks  and  as  pictured  they 
were  very  fiill  in  breast,  long  in  body,  and  resembled  fowls 
of  the  Asiatic  family  to  a  slight  degree. 


386      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      §  1 


63.  The  Drente  fowls  were  originated  in  Holland,  evi- 
dently from  some  of  the  Mediterranean  fowls  brought  from 
Italy  to  that  country.  They  have  the  general  appearance  of 
the  Leghorn,  and  they  have  been  bred  in  black,  blue,  cuckoo, 
gold  and  silver  laced,  gold  and  silver  penciled,  partridge, 
speckled,  white,  and  yellow  variety  colors;  yet  none  of  them 
have  been  bred  to  a  type  or  character  that  would  make  them 
attractive  for  exhibition  purposes.  They  are  prolific  egg  pro- 
ducers. In  weight,  the  males  average  from  5  to  5|  pounds; 
the  females,  from  4  to  4|  pounds. 


OWL-BEARDED    DUTCH 

64.  The  Owl -Bearded  Dutch,  fowls  might  be  likened 
to  the  FaveroUe  fowls.  They  were  originated  perhaps  more 
than  a  century  ago,  although  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any 
authentic  record  as  to  where  or  how  they  were  made.  The 
top  of  the  head,  the  comb,  and  the  beak  of  the  Owl-Bearded 
Dutch  are  like  the  same  parts  of  the  La  Fl^che;  the  beard  and 
the  muff,  like  those  parts  of  the  FaveroUe  fowls.  The  male  of 
the  silver-laced  variety  has  light  top  and  dark  tmder-body  color 
somewhat  like  the  Dorking;  the  female  is  marked  like  the  laced 
Wyandotte.  They  have  been  known  in  four  varieties:  black, 
gold  and  silver  laced,  and  white.  They  are  somewhat  smaller 
in  size  than  are  the  Wyandotte,  weighing  at  least  a  pound  less. 
They  are  so  little  bred,  even  in  their  home  coimtry,  as  to  make 
it  quite  a  task  to  find  any  that  are  of  fairly  good  quality. 


§  7      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS     387 


GERMAN 

65.  Expanse  of  temtory  considered,  Germany  has  fewer 
breeds  or  varieties  of  fowls  than  any  other  coimtry.  Most 
of  the  German  breeds  show  the  influence  of  the  Italian  varieties. 
Edward  Brown  mentions  eight  different  kinds  as  belonging  to 
Germany.  Sketches  made  by  Mr.  Chatterton,  of  England, 
illustrate  a  mmiber  of  kinds,  all  of  which  indicate  a  lack  of 
careful  breeding,  and  most  of  them  show  indications  of  having 
descended  from  some  one  of  the  Mediterranean  varieties.  In 
some  of  them  may  be  noted  the  peculiar  formation  of  head 
and  comb  found  in  the  La  Fleche;  others  plainly  reveal  the 
influence  of  Polish  and  Andulasian  crosses.  Of  all  the  German 
fowls,  the  one  breed  that  has  found  most  consideration  out- 
side of  its  home  country  is  the  Lakenf elder. 


LAKENFELDER 

66.  Origin. — The  Lakenfelder  fowl  originated  in  Hol- 
land, and  imdoubtedly  came  from  the  same  source  as  the 
Campines  and  Penciled  Hambirrgs.  They  may  have  come 
from  the  union  of  Campines  of  black-and-white  plumage  with 
white  Leghorns,  followed  by  selecting  the  best  offspring  and 
breeding  them  for  form  and  color;  but  there  is  no  absolute 
proof  of  such  an  origin. 

67.  Development. — The  Lakenfelder  fowls  were  for- 
merly developed  for  egg  production;  later  they  became  more 
attractive,  and  English  and  American  fanciers  have  done  much 
for  their  improvement. 

68.  History. — The  Lakenfelder  fowls  were  first  mentioned 
as  existing  in  West  Hanover,  where  they  were  shown  in  1835. 
They  were  bred  in  the  same  locality  as  Campine  fowls,  which 
were  very  dark  in  tail  and  hackle  plumage.  It  has  been  men- 
tioned by  some  that  the  dark  Campines  were  bred  with  white 


388      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      §  7 

Italian  fowls,  and  that  in  this  way  the  Lakenfelder  were  made. 
They  were  first  brought  to  England  about  1900,  and  some  were 
brought  to  America  about  the  same  time.  The  name  Laken- 
felder is  referred  to  as  meaning  white  spread  over  a  black  field 
{laken,  lac  or  varnish;  feld,  field).  Others  refer  to  the  name 
as  meaning  a  shadow  on  a  sheet,  or  black  on  white. 

69.  Description. — The  Lakenfelder  fowls  have  been 
recognized  in  England  and  a  club  standard  description  made 
for  them;  this  standard  represents  them  as  having  the  neck 
of  medium  length,  finely  tapered  and  furnished  with  long, 
flowing  hackle;  skull,  short;  beak,  strong;  eyes,  large,  bright, 
and  almond  shaped;  comb,  single  and  of  moderate  size;  wattles 
of  meditim  length.  The  head  and  neck  of  both  males  and 
females  are  more  like  those  of  the  Campines  than  those  of  the 
Leghorns.  The  body  formation  of  both  males  and  females 
is  long  and  tapering  to  the  tail.  The  breast  is  broad  and  ftdl; 
the  back  is  broad;  the  wings  are  of  medium  length;  the  tail 
is  full.  The  sickles  and  coverts  of  the  males  are  long  and  car- 
ried at  an  angle  of  about  45  degrees.  The  shanks  and  feet  are 
of  medium  length,  free  from  feathers;  they  have  four  toes. 
Their  carriage  is  very  sprightly.  The  males  weigh  from  5  to 
6  pounds,  and  the  females  from  3|  to  4^  pounds.  A  peculi- 
arity of  this  breed  is  the  erect  carriage  of  the  comb  of  the 
females. 

In  color,  the  beak  is  dark;  the  eyes  are  red;  comb,  face,  and 
wattles  are  bright  red;  the  ear  lobes  are  white;  the  shanks  and 
feet  are  bluish  or  slate  color;  the  plumage  is  black  and  white; 
the  hackle  and  tail  in  both  and  the  saddle  hackle  of  the  male 
are  solid  black,  free  from  stripes  or  spots.  The  remainder  of 
the  plimiage  is  pure  white.  The  plimiage  is  beautiful,  its 
black  being  clean,  clear,  and  glistening,  and  its  white  pure  and 
unmixed.  There  should  be  a  perfect  separation  of  these  two 
colors ;  neither  should  mar  the  beauty  of  the  other. 

70.  Mating. — The  only  rule  that  can  be  followed  for 
mating  Lakenfelder  fowls  for  the  production  of  exhibition 
offspring  is  to  select  the  best  and  have  them  conform  as  nearly 
as  possible  to  the  standard  description  of  color.     Great  stress 


§  7      BELGIAN,  DUTCH,  AND  GERMAN  FOWLS      389 

is  laid  on  the  presence  of  dark  under  plumage.  This  refers  to 
the  same  color  of  under  plumage  necessary  for  producing  proper 
surface  color  in  Hamburg,  Brahma,  or  Colimibian  Wyandotte 
fowls. 

The  difficult  problem  in  breeding  the  Lakenf elder  fowls  is 
to  keep  the  black  and  white  separated  and  to  have  a  black 
saddle  without  white  on  the  male.  This  can  be  bred  only 
after  years  of  careful  mating  for  a  strain  that  will  breed  true 
to  color  and  markings. 


ENGLISH  FOWLS 


DORKING 


ORIGIN 


1.  Although  the  Dorking  fowls  may  have  descended  from 
the  early  Roman  fowls  of  like  character,  evidence  points  to  the 
fact  that  they  originated  among  the  farmers  of  Sussex  and 
Surrey  counties,  England.  It  was  recorded  as  early  as  1763 
that  an  incredible  quantity  of  poultry  was  sold  in  the  town  of 
Dorking,  and  that  these  fowls  were  noted  for  being  remarkably 
large  and  fine. 

Dorking  fowls  are  composite,  in  aU  probability  deriving  their 
size  and  aptitude  to  fatten  from  the  large  Sussex,  or  Surrey, 
fowls;  their  five  toes  and  rose  combs,  when  present,  were 
derived  from  the  early  Roman  five-toed  fowls,  which  were 
crossed  with  the  four-toed  Sussex,  or  Surrey,  fowls  and  pro- 
duced fowls  superior  in  size  and  table  quality  to  those  of 
almost  any  other  breed.  The  composite  character  of  fowls 
of  this  breed  is  perhaps  the  reason  that  so  much  care  is  required 
to  produce  them  true  to  color,  and,  in  manj^  cases,  uniform  as 
to  comb. 

Since  their  development,  Dorking  fowls  have  been  separated 
into  varieties.  The  Colored  Dorking,  the  Silver-Gray  Dorking^ 
and  the  White  Dorking  are  recognized  in  both  England  and 
America.  The  English  recognize,  also,  a  Cuckoo  Dorking. 
Other  varieties  are  the  Rose-Comb  Silver-Gray  Dorking  and  Red 
Dorking. 

391 


392  ENGLISH  FOWLS  §  8 


COLORED  DORKING 

2.  Origin. — The  Colored  Dorking,  or,  as  they  are  com- 
monly called,  the  Dark  Dorking  fowls,  were  developed  from  the 
common  fowls  that  were  raised  plentifully  in  and  about  Sussex 
County,  England.  It  is  thought  that  fowls  of  the  Dorking 
type  were  brought  from  India  and  crossed  with  the  fowls  bred 
in  Sussex  County.  Other  crosses  were  made  between  the 
White  and  the  Red  Dorking  and  the  very  dark  Sussex  fowls. 
Black  breasts  were  produced  in  the  Colored  and  the  Silver- 
Gray  Dorkings  by  crossing  the  Spanish  with  the  Sussex  fowls. 
From  such  crosses  the  tendency  for  Dorking  fowls  to  develop 
white  ear  lobes  was  introduced. 

3.  Development. — From  the  many  types  of  five-toed 
fowls  so  plentiful  in  Sussex  and  Surrey,  the  poultry  men  selected 
and  mated,  first  to  produce  fowls  called  the  Gray,  or  Colored, 
Dorking,  and  later  for  fowls  darker  in  plumage  and  known  as 
the  Dark,  or  Colored,  Dorking.  These  were  developed  into 
fowls  that  were  thrifty,  active,  and  easily  prepared  for  exhi- 
bition. They  were  said  to  be  the  most  satisfactory  of  all  fowls 
of  the  Dorking  varieties,  because  of  the  fact  that  they  were 
always  ready  for  the  table  and  needed  but  little  preparation 
for  the  exhibition  pen.  They  were  mated  for  improvement, 
and  by  selection  they  have  been  made  into  fowls  of  large  size. 
They  are  easily  developed,  and  are  excellent  for  table  poiiltry. 

4.  History. — Dorking  fowls  and  their  ancestors  have 
existed  in  England  for  centuries.  They  have  been  written  of 
as  Kent,  Sussex,  Surrey,  and  Dorking  fowls.  About  every 
50  years  they  have  been  changed  so  as  to  make  them  each 
time  almost  a  new  breed.  The  Colored  Dorking  of  the  pres- 
ent has  been  made  since  1850,  and  the  final  development  of 
these  fowls  has  been  completed  since  1885. 

5.  Description. — The  English  Club  Standards  states  that 
the  general  characters  of  the  males  of  the  Colored  Dorking  are 
as  follows:  The  head  is  large,  free  from  coarseness,  and  broad 
above  the  eyes;  the  eyes  are  of  fairly  good  size;  the  comb  is 


§8  ENGLISH  FOWLS  393 

either  single  or  rose  in  the  Colored  Dorking,  single  in  the  Silver- 
Gray  Dorking,  and  rose  in  the  White  and  the  Cuckoo  Dorking. 
The  single  comb  should  be  moderately  large,  circular  in  arch, 
and  finely  serrated;  the  rose  comb  should  be  square,  moderately 
broad  in  front,  and  free  from  thumb  marks,  side  spikes,  or 
sprigs;  the  ear  lobes  should  be  moderately  well  developed  and 
hang  down  as  nearly  as  possible  to  about  one-third  of  the  depth 
of  the  wattles;  the  wattles  should  be  rather  short;  the  neck, 
gracefully  arched,  with  full  hackle  coming  well  over  the  back, 
giving  the  neck  the  appearance  of  being  very  broad  and  taper- 
ing to  the  head;  the  body  should  be  deep,  square,  and  massive, 
as  large  as  possible,  long,  rectangular  in  shape  as  viewed  from 
the  side,  and  tightly  feathered;  the  breast  should  be  deep, 
broad,  and  nicely  rotinded;  the  breastbone  shoiild  be  long  and 
straight;  the  back,  broad  and  level,  with  a  fuill  saddle,  moderate 
in  length;  the  saddle,  broad,  inclining  downwards  to  the  tail; 
the  wings,  large,  carried  well  up  and  close  to  the  body. 

The  tail  should  be  full,  sweeping  and  carried  well  back 
(a  squirrel  tail  is  objectionable);  the  sickles,  broad  and  well- 
curved;  the  side  hangers,  broad  and  abundant;  the  thighs, 
large,  strong,  and  well  developed;  the  shanks,  short,  strong, 
round  in  the  bone,  set  well  apart,  and  free  from  any  sign  of 
leg  feathering;  the  spurs,  set  on  the  upper  side  of  the  shank, 
turning  rather  upwards;  the  toes  shall  be  five,  round  in  shape, 
the  front  toes  long,  straight,  and  well  spread,  the  fourth  apart 
from  the  fifth  and  inclining  toward  the  ground;  the  fifth, 
coming  away  distinctly  from  the  leg,  firmly  set  in,  and  nicely 
turned  up  the  leg.  The  shape  and  carriage  should  be  stately, 
with  the  breast  thrown  well  forwards. 

Cocks  should  weigh  from  12  to  14  poimds;  cockerels  and 
hens,  from  9  to  10  pounds;  and  pullets,  from  7  to  8  pounds. 

The  general  description  of  the  female  is:  The  head,  comb, 
ear  lobes,  and  wattles  should  be  similar  to  those  of  the  males, 
but  proportionately  smaller;  the  body,  long,  level  in  back, 
deep  and  massive,  straight  in  front,  broad  across  the  cushion, 
and  tightly  feathered;  the  tail,  well  developed,  with  broad 
feathers  carried  closely  (fan  tails  are  objectionable);  the  legs 
and  leet  shotild  be  similar  to  those  of  the  males,  although  the 


394  ENGLISH  FOWLS  §  8 

spiirs  should  not  be  so  fully  developed  (the  EngUsh  Standard 
provides  for  spurs  in  the  females);  the  shape,  plump,  deep, 
and  massive;  the  carriage,  straight  and  matronly.  The 
American  Standard  differs  from  the  English  Standard  some- 
what in  its  wording,  yet  the  meaning  is  the  same.  The  Amer- 
ican Standard  demands  single  combs  in  both  the  Colored  and 
the  Silver-Gray  Dorking,  otherwise  the  shape  is  the  same. 

The  color  description  of  both  males  and  females  is:  The 
comb,  face,  wattles,  ear  lobes,  and  eyes,  bright  red;  the  shanks, 
white  and  free  from  red  shading  or  any  traces  of  feathers;  the 
ieet,  white,  free  from  red  between  the  toes;  the  toe  nails,  white. 

On  the  males,  the  hackles  should  be  of  a  light  or  straw  color, 
and  more  or  less  striped  with  black;  the  saddle  feathers  should 
resemble  the  hackle;  the  back  plimiage  shoiild  be  various 
shades  of  white,  light,  or  gray — light  or  straw  color  preferred; 
the  wing  bows,  white  or  white  striped  with  black  or  gray — 
straw  color  preferred;  the  wing  bars,  black,  glossed  with  green; 
the  secondaries,  light  on  the  outer  web  and  dark  on  the  inner 
web;  breast  and  under  parts,  black;  the  tail,  black,  richly 
glossed — a  small  amoimt  of  white  on  the  primary  sickles  is 
permissible,  but  white  hangers  are  distinctly  objectionable. 

On  the  females,  the  color  of  the  head  should  be  dark;  the 
hackles,  pale  or  straw  color,  heavily  striped  with  black,  and 
having  the  appearance  of  being  black  and  edged  with  straw 
color;  the  breast,  dark  or  red  salmon,  each  feather  being  tipped 
with  black;  the  rest  of  the  body,  almost  black  or  approaching 
a  rich,  dark  brown,  each  feather  being  slightly  pale  at  the  edge, 
except  on  the  wings,  where  the  center  of  the  feather  is  brownish 
gray  and  is  covered  with  small,  rich  markings,  which  are  sur- 
rounded by  a  thick  lacing  of  the  black;  the  feather  being  free 
from  red ;  the  tail,  nearly  black  or  rich  copper  color. 

The  American  Standard  describes  the  Colored  Dorking  as 
a  fowl  of  lighter  color  than  the  English  Standard  does.  Other- 
wise the  two  descriptions  are  similar.  The  under  plumage  of 
the  Colored  Dorking  should  be  dark. 

6.  Mating. — In  mating  Colored  Dorking  fowls  for  the 
production  of  exhibition  offspring,  fowls  of  large  size  and  that 


§  8  ENGLISH  FOWLS  395 

have  the  proper  shape,  color,  and  markings,  according  to  the 
description,  must  be  selected.  The  most  successful  breeders 
select  a  male  of  a  light  straw  color — some  say  the  male  should 
be  almost  white  in  top  color.  This  light  color  should  be  tipped 
and  striped  with  black  or  gray.  All  breeders  object  to  using 
males  that  come  from  the  Silver-Gray  Dorkings,  the  lightest 
males  that  can  be  produced  from  the  Colored  Dorkings  being 
preferred.  Such  males  should  be  mated  with  females  that 
conform  to  Standard  demands.  Special  attention  should  be 
given  to  having  the  comb  and  head  points  of  both  sexes  reg- 
tilar;  the  ear  lobes  should  be  red;  the  shanks  and  toes  shoiild 
be  almost  as  white  as  chalk.  The  best  colored  shanks  are 
usually  produced  by  breeding  from  males  of  the  lightest  plu- 
mage color  that  occurs  in  the  Colored  Dorkings.  Males  dark 
in  the  hackle  and  top  color  frequently  produce  offspring  with 
dark  shanks.  The  best  exhibition  offspring  always  come  from 
such  matings.  Many  fanciers  breed  light  and  dark-colored 
Dorkings  promiscuously,  and  select  the  best  from  those  pro- 
duced. The  scientific  breeder  establishes  a  strain  in  this 
variety  as  carefully  as  in  other  varieties.  In  some  localities 
of  England  strains  of  Colored  Dorkings  may  be  found  that 
have  been  bred  in  line  for  more  than  50  years. 


SILVER- GRAY  DORKING 

7.  Origin. — The  originals  from  which  the  Silver- Gray- 
Dorking  has  descended  were  the  light-colored  Dorking  fowls 
of  early  days,  then  known  as  the  Gray,  or  Colored,  Dorking. 
Dorking  fowls  having  the  light-gray  shade  of  plumage  were 
selected  and  bred  for  producing  a  variety  much  lighter  in 
plumage  than  the  Colored  Dorking.  To  improve  the  light- 
colored  plumage,  a  cross  was  made  with  fowls  of  a  strain  of 
very  large  Silver  Duckwing  Game  fowls.  From  the  offspring 
thus  produced,  a  type  of  Dorking  was  bred  that  had  plumage 
like  the  Silver-Gray  Dorking  of  the  present. 

8.  Development. — The  Silver-Gray  Dorking  has  been 
developed  from  the  Duckwing  Game-Dorking  cross  into  one 


396  ENGLISH  FOWLS  §  8 

of  the  most  beautiful  kinds  of  exhibition  poultry,  and  for  this 
purpose  the  fowls  are  preferred  by  fanciers  over  those  of  all 
other  varieties  of  Dorkings.  For  a  long  time  the  Silver-Gray 
Dorking  was  smaller  than  the  Colored  Dorking,  but  much 
improvement  has  been  made,  and  now  the  size  of  the  former 
is  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  latter. 

9.  History. — The  history  of  the  Silver-Gray  Dorking 
differs  but  little  from  that  of  the  Colored  Dorking.  The 
fowls  of  both  varieties  originated  from  the  same  soiurce,  and 
they  have  been  bred  along  different  lines  only  as  to  color. 

10.  Description. — The  general  breed  characters  of  the 
Silver-Gray  Dorking  are  the  same  as  described  for  the  Col- 
ored Dorking.  In  plumage,  the  male  must  have  pure  white  top 
color,  but  a  few  of  the  lower  feathers  of  the  neck  hackle  may  be 
marked  with  gray;  the  saddle  should  be  pure  white,  without 
striping ;  the  wing  bars,  black,  glossed  with  sheen ;  the  primaries, 
black  on  the  upper  web,  light  on  the  lower  web;  the  secondaries, 
white  on  the  outer  web  and  black  on  the  inner  web;  with  a 
black  spot  at  the  end  of  each  feather;  the  wing  bays,  white; 
the  breast  and  upper  parts,  black,  free  from  white  mottlings 
or  foreign  color  of  any  kind,  but  in  old  fowls,  a  slight  mottling 
on  the  thighs  and  abdomen  is  permissible;  the  tail,  black  and 
free  from  white;  the  sickles,  broad  and  glossed  with  sheen; 
the  lesser  coverts,  edged  with  white. 

In  the  females,  the  head  and  hackle  plumage  should  be  sil- 
very white,  centered  or  marked  with  black;  the  breast,  salmon 
red,  shading  to  an  ashy  gray  on  the  thighs;  the  back,  wings, 
and  upper  body,  silvery  gray,  finely  penciled  or  stippled  with 
darker  gray;  the  tail,  a  darker  gray  than  the  body  pkmiage; 
the  primaries  of  the  wing,  dark;  the  secondaries,  dark  on  the 
upper  web  and  gray  on  the  lower  web ;  the  flights  are  frequently 
powdered  with  gray. 

The  under  plumage  of  both  males  and  females  should  be 
dark  gray  or  slate;  the  shanks  and  toes,  white;  the  comb,  face, 
eyes,  ear  lobes,  and  wattles,  red. 

Silver-Gray  Dorking  cocks  should  weigh  8  pounds;  cockerels, 
7   pounds;   hens,    6|   pounds;   pullets,    5^   pounds.     Colored 


§  8  ENGLISH  FOWLS  397 

Dorking  fowls  average  almost  a  pound  heavier  than  these 
weights. 

11.  Mating.— One  of  the  most  successful  breeders  of 
Dorking  fowls  claims  that  such  of  the  White  or  Silver-Gray 
Dorking  fowls  as  show  a  yellow  or  lemon  color  in  the  plumage 
should  not  be  used  in  the  breeding  pen.  Another  feature  men- 
tioned by  him  is  that  they  should  have  short,  straight  legs, 
set  wide  apart  and  strong  in  bone.  Special  attention  must 
also  be  given  to  selecting  for  breeding  such  fowls  as  do  not 
have  marked  defects  of  comb,  head  points,  form,  or  feather. 
From  the  fact  that  the  Dorking  fowls  have  descended  from 
a  long  line  of  ancestors,  many  of  which  possessed  feattures  for- 
eign to  the  breed,  it  will  be  necessary  to  watch  closely  for  such 
defects,  as  they  are  apt  to  appear  in  the  offspring.  In  mating 
Silver-Gray  Dorking  fowls,  the  most  important  thing  for  the 
breeder  to  have  is  a  knowledge  of  the  line  of  breeding  of  the 
fowls  which  he  selects  for  breeders. 

It  is  almost  useless  to  attempt  to  breed  the  best  exhibition 
type  of  Silver-Gra;y  Dorking  from  fowls  that  have  not  been 
bred  in  line  year  after  year  for  the  production  of  a  strain  that 
will  reproduce  of  their  kind.  Double  matings  are  not  neces- 
sary, but  careful  selection  is  a  necessity,  and  unless  the  fowls 
selected  for  breeding  have  been  well  bred  for  many  years,  they 
will  fail,  and  although  they  may  have  been  properly  bred, 
if  they  have  not  been  well  selected,  failure  will  follow.  Clean, 
clear  surface  color  in  both  the  males  and  females  is  needed. 
If  the  body  color  is  silvery  gray,  the  markings  are  likely  to 
be  a  darker  shade  of  gray,  which  gives  a  soft  appearance  to  the 
body  plumage;  and  if  the  body  color  is  dark  gray,  stippled 
with  a  darker  color,  the  fowl  will  have  a  smutty  appearance 
and  will  be  undesirable  for  exhibition  purposes  or  for  breeding 
for  the  production  of  market  poultry.  Select  fowls  of  clean, 
clear  colors  according  to  the  directions  of  the  Standard,  and 
mate,  select,  and  remate,  always  using  the  largest  females  for 
producing  eggs  for  hatching. 


398  ENGLISH  FOWLS  §8 


WHITE  DORKING 

12.  Origin. — There  seems  to  be  no  reason  for  doubting 
that  the  White  Dorking  and  the  Red  Dorking  of  early  times 
were  the  purest  bred  of  any  fowls  of  the  Dorking  family.  Some 
believe  that  the  fowls  of  both  of  the  original  Dorking  varieties, 
the  White  and  the  Red,  had  rose  combs,  and  that  a  rose  comb 
was  a  true  character  of  the  original  Dorking  fowls.  The 
rose  comb  has  continued  with  the  White  Dorking;  it  is 
not  now  bred  with  any  other  kind  of  comb.  It  has  been 
conjectured  that  at  one  time  the  White  Dorking  fowls  were 
strengthened  by  crossing  them  with  those  of  other  breeds, 
and  that  as  a  result  both  rose  combs  and  single  combs  were 
foimd  in  the  offspring.  The  single-comb  type,  however,  has 
been  discarded,  and  the  rose  comb  has  been  almost  as  well 
established  in  the  White  Dorking  as  in  the  Hamburg. 

13.  Development. — Illustrations  of  white  Dorking  fowls 
of  more  than  a  century  ago  show  them  as  having  the  appear- 
ance of  large  white  Leghorn  fowls,  with  rose  combs,  five  toes, 
and  a  slight  indication  of  a  tuft  of  feathers  growing  on  the  head 
just  back  of  the  comb.  Imagine  this  as  the  original  Dorking 
and  it  wiU  be  possible  to  realize  what  has  been  accomplished 
as  the  result  of  many  years  of  careful  breeding  and  selecting 
for  size  and  market  qualities. 

14.  History. — In  the  year  35,  Columella  advised  the 
Romans  to  avoid  the  white  varieties  of  fowls,  because  they 
were  less  robust  than  those  of  the  red  varieties.  As  this  was 
the  condition  of  the  white  Dorking  fowls  when  they  were  first 
taken  to  England,  years  had  to  be  spent  in  improving  them  in 
size  and  vitality.  It  is  claimed  that  they  were  crossed  with 
game  fowls,  and  the  statement  is  made  that  some  of  them, 
even  at  the  present  time,  lay  eggs  having  a  slightly  tinted  shell. 
They  have  been  crossed  with  light-colored  offspring  from 
Silver-Gray  Dorkings,  which  had  white  under  plumage  and 
white  markings  in  the  plumage  of  the  breast  and  body.  Thus 
they  have  been  built  up  from  fowls  that  were  condemned 
on  account  of  being  of  delicate  constitution  to  fowls  that  are 


§  8  ENGLISH  FOWLS  399 

of  large  size,   good  vitality,   and  true  to  breed  characters, 
including  the  rose  comb. 

15.  Description. — White  Dorking  fowls  shoiild  conform 
in  size  and  shape  to  those  of  the  other  Dorking  varieties.  In 
size,  they  range  one-half  pound  lighter  than  the  Silver-Gray 
Dorkings.  Though,  according  to  the  demands  of  the  Standard, 
the  White  Dorking  should  have  the  same  breed  characters 
as  other  Dorkings,  the  fowls  of  this  variety  really  do  not  con- 
form in  shape  to  those  of  the  other  varieties.  A  few  White 
Dorking  fowls  have  been  bred  that  rival  those  of  other  varieties 
in  breed  characters,  but  in  general  they  do  not  equal  them. 
The  beak,  shanks,  and  toes  of  this  variety  are  white;  the  eyes, 
comb,  face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes,  red.  The  English  Stand- 
ard describes  the  eyes  as  having  bright-red  or  yellow  irises, 
the  former  preferred.  The  plimiage  is  white  throughout,  as 
pure  and  clean  as  possible,  and  without  the  least  shading  of 
foreign  color  of  any  kind;  the  comb  is  rose,  more  like  the  comb 
of  the  Hambiirg  than  that  of  the  Rose-Comb  White  Leghorn 
or  of  the  Wyandotte. 

16.  Mating. — In  selecting  fowls  from  which  to  breed 
White  Dorking  fowls  of  exhibition  quality,  males  and  females 
most  nearly  perfect  in  size,  shape,  and  color  should  be  taken 
for  mating.  Hens  of  large  size  are  always  to  be  preferred. 
The  plumage  should  be  white  to  the  skin,  including  the  qmlls, 
and  the  skin  also  should  be  white.  To  be  successful  in  breeding 
White  Dorking  fowls,  a  strain  must  be  well  established  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  of  the  mating-chart  system,  and  new  blood 
should  be  frequently  introduced  through  hens  of  the  finest 
quality  that  have  been  selected  from  strains  well  known  as 
producers  of  the  best  type  of  Dorkings. 


400  ENGLISH  FOWLS  §  8 


NON-STANDARD  VARIETIES  OF  DORKING 

17.  Three  varieties  of  Dorking  fowls  will  be  considered 
as  non-standard,  and,  although  one  of  them  is  described  in  the 
English  Club  Standards,  none  is  listed  in  the  American  Stand- 
ard. These  are  the  Cuckoo,  the  Rose-Comb  Silver-Gray,  and  the 
Red  Dorking.  The  last,  though  one  of  the  oldest,  if  not  the 
oldest,  variety  of  five-toed  fowls,  has  never  been  recognized 
as  a  standard  variety.  

CUCKOO    DORKING 

18.  Origin. — The  Cuckoo  Dorking  has  been  bred  but 
little  outside  of  the  Surrey  districts.  The  fowls  of  this  variety 
have  undoubtedly  resulted  from  the  promiscuous  intermingling 
of  White  Dorkings  with  other  fowls  that  have  rose  combs  and 
black  plumage.  Cuckoo  Dorking  fowls  were  brought  into 
New  Jersey  very  early,  and  some  claim  that  they  were  the 
originals  from  which  the  American  Dominique  fowls  have 
descended.  Though  a  few  writers  have  mentioned  the  exist- 
ence of  Cuckoo  Dorking  fowls,  some  have  considered  them 
as  identical  with  the  Scotch  Gray  fowls. 

19.  Development. — Cuckoo  Dorking  fowls  have  never 
been  developed  beyond  ordinary  quality.  They  have  existed 
in  and  about  Surrey,  England,  and  are  as  apt  to  have  four  toes 
as  five.  Their  existence  may  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that 
cuckoo  color  or  the  barred  color  of  dark  and  light,  the  same  as 
that  foimd  in  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rock,  develops  in  almost 
every  locality  where  white-plumaged  and  black-plumaged  fowls 
are  kept.  Though  Cuckoo  Dorking  fowls  are  recognized  in 
England,  and  are  described  as  fowls  having  fairly  good  breed 
characters  in  conformity  to  the  Standard  description  of  the 
Dorking  breed,  and  colored  like  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rock, 
they  have  never  been  encouraged  in  America. 

20.  Mating. — In  mating  Cuckoo  Dorking  fowls,  only  the 
best  should  be  selected  and  mated  and  remated  until  size, 
shape,  and  color  have  been  well  established.     The  Dorking 


§  8  ENGLISH  FOWLS  401 

requirements  will  be  the  same  in  this  as  in  the  other  varieties. 
To  breed  them  true  to  color,  the  same  method  must  be  fol- 
lowed as  in  mating  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  fowls. 


ROSE-COMB    SILVER-GRAY    DORKING 

21.  Both  rose  and  single  combs  existed  in  the  Silver-Gray 
Dorking  of  the  early  days.  The  Rose- Comb  Silver- Gray- 
Dorking  variety  of  fowls  has  never  been  encouraged  in  Amer- 
ica, and  it  has  received  less  and  less  attention  each  year  in 
other  countries.  To  breed  fowls  of  this  variety,  a  selection 
must  be  made  for  size,  shape,  and  color  like  that  of  the  Silver- 
Gray  Dorking,  and  the  fowls  so  selected  must  have  rose  combs. 
Mate  and  remate  these  fowls  until  a  strain  has  been  well 
established.  Silver-Gray  Dorking  fowls  with  rose  combs  may 
be  secured  in  England. 

RED    DORKING 

22.  Origin. — The  red  and  white  varieties  of  Dorking 
were  the  first  of  the  kind  that  existed.  The  Red  Dorking 
was  bred  in  the  southern  part  of  England,  and  although  fowls 
of  this  variety  have  never  been  so  generally  encouraged  as 
those  of  the  other  varieties,  they  have  continued  to  exist. 

23.  Development. — Red  Dorking  fowls  have  not  been 
developed  in  the  same  sense  as  the  other  varieties,  but  they  are 
now  receiving  more  attention  than  formerly. 

24.  History. — The  history  of  the  Red  Dorking  is  embodied 
in  the  history  of  the  other  varieties  except  so  far  as  the  fowls 
of  this  variety  have  been  bred  in  America.  Some  of  them  were 
brought  to  the  United  States  about  1902  and  were  bred  in  New 
Jersey,  on  the  same  farm  where  some  Silver-Gray  Dorking 
fowls  were  bred,  for  the  purpose  of  testing  the  utility  qualities 
of  both  varieties.  The  Red  Dorking  fowls  were  found  to  be 
more  vigorous,  to  lay  more  eggs,  to  lay  a  greater  percentage  of 
fertile  eggs,  and  to  produce  chicks  that  were  more  sturdy  than 
the  chicks  from  the  Silver-Gray  Dorkings. 


402  ENGLISH  FOWLS  §  8 

25.  Description. — Red  Dorking  males  are,  in  general 
form,  quite  like  other  Dorkings,  with  the  exception  that  they 
stand  more  upright.  Their  plumage  is  about  the  same  color 
as  that  of  the  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  fowls,  except  that 
the  color  is  deep  reddish  brown  rather  than  rich,  brilliant  red. 
Their  shanks  are  slightly  tinged  with  yellow,  some  showing 
red  lines  down  the  inside.  In  writing  of  them,  Harry  Hamlin, 
of  Haxted  Mills,  Edenbridge,  England,  says:  "The  male  has 
a  beautiful  deep-red  hackle;  single  comb;  breast  and  tail, 
black;  shanks,  very  short.  The  shanks  of  fine  specimens  are 
3^  inches  from  above  the  jimcture  of  the  fifth  toe  with  the  shank 
to  the  hock  joint.  Males  weigh  about  10  pounds.  The  hens 
have  close-fitting  pliunage  of  a  brown-red  color."  The  yellow 
tinge  is  thought  to  have  come  from  the  early  influence  of  the 
game  fowls.  Those  seen  in  America  conform  generally  to  this 
description,  except  that  the  breast  of  the  male  is  shaded  with 
reddish  brown  and  some  of  the  females  are  as  dark  red  as  the 
favored  color  of  the  Rhode  Island  Red  pullets,  and  some  of 
them  have  a  yellowish-brown  color ;  the  tails  are  black,  bronzed 
with  a  reddish  cast,  and  the  main  flights  are  edged  or  marked 
with  black. 

26.  Mating. — It  is  almost  impossible  to  outline  a  system  of 
mating  for  the  fowls  of  this  variety.  The  rule  followed  by  those 
who  breed  them  is  to  select  the  best,  following  Dorking  breed 
characters  for  shape  and  color  as  previously  described,  and 
selecting  fowls  of  large .  size  that  have  long  bodies  and  con- 
siderable length  of  breast,  with  great  width  between  the  thighs. 


§  8  ENGLISH  FOWLS  403 


ORPINGTON 


ORIGIN 


27.  William  Cook,  of  England,  who  originated  the  Orping- 
ton, said  that  when  he  decided  to  form  the  breed  he  began 
to  look  for  suitable  material  among  fowls  noted  for  egg  pro- 
duction, table  qualities,  vitality,  and  strength  of  constitution. 
From  the  Black  Minorca,  which  had  red  ear  lobes,  he  selected 
the  best  males  and  mated  them  with  Black  Plymouth  Rock 
females,  which  were  sports  from  the  American  Barred  Pl5nn- 
outh  Rock.  From  this  cross,  pullets  of  good  shape  and 
color  were  produced,  but  the  cockerels  were  of  a  mixed  straw 
color  and  were  useless.  He  mated  the  black  pullets  so  pro- 
duced with  Black  Langshan  males  of  the  old,  short-legged  type. 

The  one  difference  in  origin  between  the  original  Single- 
Comb  Black  Orpington  and  its  companion,  the  Rose-Comb 
Black  Orpington,  is  that  the  latter,  instead  of  being  produced 
as  mentioned  above  for  the  Single-Comb  Black  Orpington, 
was  produced  by  mating  Rose-Comb  Black  Langshan  males 
with  females  from  the  Black  Minorca  and  Black  Plymouth 
Rock  cross.  Since  the  original  Orpington  was  brought  to  the 
attention  of  poultrymen,  many  varieties  have  appeared.  All 
seem  to  have  come  from  different  sources,  and  each  variety  has 
been  changed  materially  from  its  original  type. 


BLACK  ORPINGTON 

28.  Origin. — Mr.  Cook  was  the  first  to  conceive  the  idea 
of  uniting  the  blood  of  the  Mediterranean,  the  Asiatic,  and  the 
American  breeds  and  making  a  large  fowl  that  would  be  attract- 
ive for  exhibition  and  profitable  for  market  purposes.  That 
he  succeeded  cannot  be  denied.     Nevertheless,  the  Orpington 


404  ENGLISH  FOWLS  §  8 

of  the  present  has  been  so  thoroughly  modernized  as  to  change 
it  into  a  type  different  from  the  originals.  The  first  Orping- 
ton fowls  were  of  Langshan  type  rather  than  like  the  present 
Orpington,  and  had  single  combs.  To  modernize  them,  or  to 
bring  them  within  the  scope  of  the  present  breed  characters, 
it  is  thought  that  the  original  type  of  Langshan,  having  no 
feathers  on  the  shanks  or  toes,  was  used.  The  late  Lewis 
Wright,  of  England,  claimed  that  this  type  of  fowl  was  called 
Java  in  America,  and  was  used  in  creating  the  original  Plym- 
outh Rock,  and  that  the  same  kind  of  fowl  was  crossed  into 
the  original  Orpington  fowls  to  modify  the  type,  to  shorten 
their  legs,  and  to  increase  their  size. 

The  modem  Black  Orpington  was  first  shown  in  1891, 
and  it  was  claimed  that  the  fowls  of  this  variety  were  pro- 
duced without  using  any  of  the  original  breed.  Investigation 
has  shown  that  they  have  come  from  intermingHng  the  blood 
of  the  original  Black  Orpington  with  Asiatic  fowls  of  large 
size  that  had  black  shanks  and  plumage. 

29.  The  Rose-Comb  Black  Orpington  came  originally  from 
the  same  foimdation  stock  as  the  Single-Comb  Black  Orping- 
ton, except  that  fowls  having  rose  combs  instead  of  single 
combs  were  used.  The  Rose-Comb  Black  Orpington  fowls 
first  brought  to  America  were  better  in  breed  characters,  mod- 
em type  considered,  than  the  Single-Comb  Black  Orpington 
fowls  were  during  the  same  period. 

30.  Development. — ^When  Single-Comb  Black  Orpington 
fowls  were  first  introduced,  fault  was  found  with  them  because 
they  were  not  a  distinctive  breed,  but  were  modified  Langshans, 
having  no  feathers  on  the  shanks  or  toes.  To  overcome  this 
objection,  the  Rose-Comb  Black  Orpington  was  made  and 
developed  into  more  of  an  Asiatic  type  than  the  single-comb 
variety.  Later,  development  was  made  by  selection.  Fowls 
of  the  most  pleasing  character  were  selected  and  mated  for 
the  production  of  better  form  and  color.  Thus,  the  two  vari- 
eties of  Black  Orpington  fowls  were  developed. 

31.  History. — Following  the  creation  of  Black  Orping- 
ton fowls,  marked  interest  was  shown  in  them  by  the  poultry- 


§  8  ENGLISH  FOWLS  405 

men  of  England.  They  followed  the  example  of  the  originator 
and  by  the  combined  effort  of  many  fanciers,  ten  varieties  have 
been  created.  The  first  Black  Orpington  fowls  brought  to 
America  are  thought  to  have  come  to  Massachusetts  in  1891. 
Later,  more  of  the  same  kind  were  brought  into  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  In  1903,  Mr.  Cook  brought  Orpington 
fowls  to  America  and  exhibited  them  at  the  leading  shows. 
Following  this,  the  Single-Comb  Buff  Orpington  became  pop- 
ular in  America  and  was  admitted  to  the  American  Standard 
of  1906.  The  Single-Comb  Black  and  the  Single-Comb  White 
Orpingtons  have  since  been  admitted.  No  fowls  except  those 
of  the  American  breeds  have  ever  been  so  well  received  in 
America  as  the  Orpington,  and  none  have  been  more  carefully 
bred  either  in  England  or  in  America.  The  outcome  is  a  breed 
of  fowls  attractive  in  form,  beautiful  in  color,  and  highly 
considered  as  market  poultry. 

32.  Description. — ^Although  both  the  EngHsh  and  Amer- 
ican Standards  describe  the  same  shape  for  all  Orpington 
fowls,  yet  all  varieties  do  not  possess  the  same  breed  char- 
acters; in  a  general  way,  the  best  of  each  variety  are  of  a  dis- 
tinctive type,  which  should  be  more  generally  cultivated. 
The  body  should  have  good  length,  breadth,  and  depth,  con- 
forming to  the  body  of  the  best  type  of  Embden  geese,  which 
is  described  as  being  canoe  shaped,  that  is,  as  being  long  and 
deep,  wide  between  the  thighs,  and  turning  up  before  and  behind 
in  a  graceful  curve,  suggestive  of  an  abundance  of  desirable 
meat  and  a  capacity  for  consuming  much  feed  and  transform- 
ing it  into  eggs. 

The  Orpington  male  is  described  as  a  fowl  of  mediimi  size; 
the  head  is  small,  neat,  and  well  rounded  over  the  skull;  the 
eyes,  full  and  bright;  and  the  combs,  single  or  rose,  according 
to  the  variety.  The  single  comb  must  be  of  medium  size, 
well  formed,  and  evenly  serrated;  it  must  have  five  points, 
and  be  evenly  poised  on  the  head— too  large  a  comb  is  objec- 
tionable. The  rose  comb  should  be  of  the  same  character 
as  the  Hamburg  comb,  with  the  exception  that  it  should  not 
be  so  extended.     It  must  be  free  from  thumb  marks  or  inden- 


406  ENGLISH  FOWLS  §  8 

tations,  wider  before  than  behind,  and  have  a  distinctive  point 
at  the  end,  not  so  long,  however,  as  the  spike  of  the  Hamburg 
comb;  it  must  follow  the  shape  of  the  head  and  not  stand  out 
behind  like  the  comb  of  the  Hamburg.  The  rose  comb  of  the 
modem  type  of  Orpington  is  more  like  that  of  the  Wyandotte 
than  of  the  Hamburg.  The  ear  lobes  should  be  of  medium 
size;  the  neck,  rather  short  and  nicely  curved,  with  long,  flow- 
ing hackle;  the  breast,  full,  broad,  deep,  and  carried  well 
forwards;  the  breastbone,  long  and  prominent.  There  should 
be  plenty  of  width  between  the  thighs.  The  back  should  be 
rather  short  in  comparison  with  the  breast ;  the  saddle  should 
rise  from  the  middle  of  the  back,  and  this  together  with  the 
long,  flowing  hackle,  gives  the  back  a  shortened  appearance. 
The  wings  should  be  round,  well  formed,  and  carried  close  to 
the  body.  The  English  Standard  states  that  the  skin  shoiild 
be  thin  and  white,  and  the  flesh  pinkish  white.  The  tail  should 
be  of  medium  size,  inclined  to  a  low  carriage,  as  in  the  Cochin, 
rather  than  to  an  erect  carriage,  as  in  the  Langshan;  an  angle 
of  45  degrees  is  about  correct.  The  thighs  should  be  short  and 
heavy;  the  shanks,  short  and  strong;  the  toes,  foiir  in  number 
and  well  spread.  In  the  Black  Orpingtons,  the  shanks  are 
comparatively  small  for  the  size  of  the  fowl. 

The  cocks  should  weigh  9  pounds;  the  cockerels  and  hens, 
from  8  to  8 J  poimds;  and  the  pullets,  7  pounds.  Generally 
speaking,  Orpington  fowls  are  large  and  have  more  of  the 
Cochin  than  of  the  American  breed  characters;  they  are  not 
so  full  feathered  as  the  Cochins,  but  more  so  than  the 
Plymouth  Rocks. 

The  female  conforms  in  a  general  wa}''  to  the  description  of 
the  male.  She  has  plimipness  of  form  and  a  long  breast  that 
extends  well  forwards.  Her  back  has  been  described  as  having 
but  little  cushion,  yet  sufficient  to  give  a  short  and  gracefully 
curved  appearance.  Her  carriage  is  like  that  of  a  Plymouth 
Rock.  Less  fullness  of  feather  in  saddle  and  cushion  is  now 
required  in  the  female  than  formerly.  Her  tail  should  be  of 
medium  size  and  carried  like  the  tail  of  the  Plymouth  Rock 
female.  Her  shanks  and  feet  should  conform  to  those  of  the 
males. 


§  8  ENGLISH  FOWLS  407 

The  plumage  of  both  males  and  females  should  be  close 
rather  than  fluffy  and  their  color  should  be  as  follows:  Beak, 
shanks,  and  toes,  black;  bottom  of  feet,  white;  eyes,  black 
with  dark-brown  iris;  comb,  face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes,  red; 
plumage,  black  throughout,  with  a  rich,  glistening  green  sheen; 
and  color  of  skin,  white. 

33.  Mating. — In  mating  Black  Orpington  fowls  for  the 
production  of  exhibition  offspring,  care  must  be  taken  to  select 
only  those  that  are  perfect  and  that  have  been  bred  in  line 
from  a  strain  so  well  established  as  to  show  no  traces  of  the 
Langshan  cross.  The  dangers  to  be  avoided  are  the  appear- 
ance of  Langshan  type  in  the  offspring  and  an  excessive  amount 
of  cushion  in  the  female.  Large  hens  of  such  a  strain  should 
be  mated  with  large  males  of  the  same  strain  that  have 
Orpington  breed  characters  and  perfect  plumage  color. 

The  mating  of  males  and  females  excessively  rich  in  color 
may  produce  offspring  having  red  feathers  or  purple  barring 
in  their  plumage.  To  avoid  this,  females  of  less  brilliant  plu- 
mage should  be  used  in  the  matings.  Double  matings  are  not 
necessary,  but  close  attention  must  be  given  to  type,  body 
formation,  and  blood  lines.  The  points  needing  the  greatest 
consideration  are  the  following:  The  comb,  which,  in  both 
the  Single-  and  the  Rose-Comb  Black  Orpington,  is  apt  to  be 
too  large;  the  ear  lobes,  which  are  apt  to  be  too  prominent, 
with  white  frequently  showing  in  them,  probably  from  the 
influence  of  the  Minorcas  in  the  original ;  and  a  too  great  length 
of  leg,  and  a  Langshan  type  of  breast  and  body  formation 
which  are  apt  to  occur  and  which  must  be  guarded  against. 
Black  Orpington  fowls  showing  Cochin  type  should  be  pre- 
ferred over  those  showing  Langshan  type.  Better  for  breed- 
ers, however,  than  either  of  these  two  types  are  fowls  possessing 
the  true  breed  characters  of  the  Orpington,  as  shown  in  the 
color  illustration.  In  selecting  fowls  for  the  breeding  pen, 
choose  those  with  this  formation  and  with  the  most  nearly 
perfect  color  obtainable. 


408  ENGLISH  FOWLS  §  8 


BUFF  ORPINGTON 

34.  Origin. — The  first  Buff  Orpington  fowls  were  made 
by  William  Cook,  of  England,  who  mated  a  Golden  Spangled 
Hamburg  male  with  Dorking  females.  Some  of  the  offspring 
from  this  mating  had  reddish-brown  plimiage.  They  were 
selected  and  mated  with  Buff  Cochin  fowls  with  the  result  that 
the  original  Single-Comb  Buff  Orpington  fowls  were  produced. 
The  Rose-Comb  Buff  Orpington  fowls  were  produced  in  the 
same  manner  by  using  Rose-Comb  Dorking  females.  Other 
breeders  selected  the  best  of  the  Lincolnshire  Buff  fowls  and 
mated  them  for  the  production  of  fowls  of  the  Orpington  type. 
StiU  others  cross-bred  the  original  Orpington  fowls  with  Lin- 
colnshire Buff  fowls  and  selected  and  mated  the  offspring  for 
the  production  of  buff  fowls  having  the  breed  characters  that 
had  been  selected  as  proper  for  the  Orpington. 

35.  Development. — It  took  almost  10  years  to  produce 
a  Buff  Orpington  fit  to  be  sent  to  the  Dairy  Show  in  England. 
Immediately  after  Buff  Orpingtons  came  into  public  notice, 
they  were  adopted  by  poultrymen  of  England,  who  joined  in 
an  effort  for  a  greater  development  of  this  variety.  However, 
notwithstanding  the  improvement  that  has  been  made  in  this 
variety,  there  is  a  difference  in  breed  characters,  or  body  for- 
mation, between  the  Buff  and  the  other  varieties  of  Orpington. 
The  single-comb  variety  has  been  more  completely  finished 
than  the  rose-comb  variety.  The  Buff  Orpington  fowls  gen- 
erally seem  to  be  closer  feathered  than  the  fowls  of  the  Black 
and  the  White  Orpington  varieties. 

36.  History. — The  Buff  Orpington  came  into  its  own 
through  a  storm  of  protests.  It  was  claimed  that  these  fowls 
were  only  an  improvement  of  the  Lincolnshire  Buff  fowls 
and  not  a  new  breed.  Some  accepted  them  as  an  original 
variety  and  mingled  them  with  the  best  of  the  Lincolnshire 
Buff  fowls.  Others  added  Buff  Cochin  blood  to  them,  and  the 
present  type  of  Buff  Orpington  has  been  made  by  selection 
from  offspring  of  all  these  crosses. 


§  8  ENGLISH  FOWLS  409 

37.  Description. — All  Orpington  fowls  are  required  to 
have  the  same  breed  characters,  and  the  shape  description 
given  for  the  Black  Orpington  will  therefore  apply  to  the  Buff 
Orpington.  As  stated,  however,  there  is  more  or  less  difference 
between  the  body  formation  of  the  Buff  Orpington  and  that 
of  the  other  varieties.  The  Buff  Orpington  differs  quite  as 
much  from  the  other  Orpington  varieties  as  the  Penciled  and 
the  Spangled  Hamburgs  differ  from  each  other. 

Both  the  Single-Comb  and  the  Rose-Comb  Buff  Orpington 
must  have  the  beak,  shanks,  and  toes  white  or  pinkish  white. 
In  some  there  is  a  tendency  toward  yellow  or  creamy  white 
in  shanks.  This  should  be  avoided.  It  is  far  better  that  they 
should  have  a  pinkish-white  shade  in  the  shanks  and  toes  rather 
than  a  creamy  white  or  yellow.  The  eyes  should  be  red;  the 
plumage  should  be  one  even  shade  of  buff  throughout,  free  from 
shafting  or  mealiness ;  the  top  color  of  the  males  should  have  a 
glossy  appearance  that  reflects  a  darker  shade  of  color  than  is 
proper  for  the  breast  and  body  plimiage.  The  plumage  of 
the  female  should  be  one  even  shade  of  golden  buff  through- 
out— about  the  same  shade  as  the  breast  plumage  of  the  male. 
The  under  plumage  should  be  buff,  a  shade  or  two  lighter  than 
the  surface  plumage.  The  color  in  the  web  of  the  feathers 
should  be  so  dense  as  to  prevent  the  lighter  shade  in  the  under 
plumage  from  showing  through.  The  combs,  whether  rose 
or  single,  must  conform  to  the  description  of  them  given  in 
the  description  of  the  Black  Orpington.  Comb,  face,  wattles, 
and  ear  lobes  in  all  Orpington  fowls  must  be  red  and  free  from 
foreign  color. 

38.  Mating. — In  mating  Buff  Orpington  fowls,  the  best 
results  are  quite  as  difflcult  to  obtain  as  they  are  in  any  of  the 
other  buff  varieties.  The  proper  breed  characters  must  be 
present  in  the  fowls  selected  for  mating.  Hens  of  large  size 
should  be  selected  for  improving  size,  and  only  fowls  should  be 
used  that  have  been  bred  in  line  for  establishing  a  strain  of 
Biiff  Orpington  fowls  conforming  in  shape  and  color  with  the 
Standard  description.  In  mating  for  color,  the  same  rules 
must  be  applied  that  have  already  been  given  for  mating  Buff 


410  ENGLISH  FOWLS  §  8 

Cochin  fowls  and  the  fowls  of  other  buff  varieties.  The  average 
size  of  the  Biiff  Orpington  does  not  equal  that  of  other  varieties. 
To  improve  size,  the  use  of  large  hens  2  years  old  or  older 
is  recommended.  To  avoid  bad  results  from  inbreeding,  the 
mating-chart  system  should  be  followed  as  closely  as  possible. 
Defects  to  be  guarded  against  are  combs  that  are  too  large, 
that  are  apt  to  lop  over  at  the  heel,  or  that  have  uneven  serra- 
tions, thumb  marks,  or  side  sprigs;  shanks  of  any  other  color 
than  white  or  pinkish  white;  and  eyes  of  any  other  color  than 
red  or  brownish  red.  Some  Buff  Orpington  fowls  of  good 
quality  will  have  shanks  of  a  bluish  tinge,  and  some  will  have 
yellow  shanks;  all  such  fowls  should  be  discarded.  Buff 
Orpington  fowls  having  uneven  colors  should  not  be  mated 
together;  fowls  having  mealiness  in  their  plumage  should  be 
discarded  and  only  even-colored  fowls  should  be  selected.  A 
golden  biiff  in  the  surface  and  tmder  plumage  of  Buff  Orpington 
breeding  fowls  is  essential  in  order  to  produce  the  proper  buff 
in  the  offspring. 

WHITE  ORPINGTON 

39.  Origin. — There  are  two  varieties  of  White  Orping- 
ton, the  rose  comb  and  the  single  comb,  and  both  are  said  to 
have  been  produced  by  crossing  White  Leghorn  males  with 
Black  Hamburg  females.  The  white  pullets  from  this  cross 
were  mated  with  Rose-Comb  White  Dorking  males,  and  some 
of  the  offspring  had  rose  combs  and  some  had  single  combs. 
They  were  separated,  selected,  and  bred,  and  in  this  way  the 
two  varieties  of  White  Orpington  were  made. 

It  has  been  claimed  that  White  Orpingtons  have  also  been 
produced  by  mating  both  Single-Comb  and  Rose-Comb  White 
Dorking  with  White  Langshan  fowls;  by  mating  white  sports 
from  Black  Orpington  with  Single-Comb  White  Dorking  fowls ; 
and  by  intermingling  with  the  best  offspring  of  these  crosses 
both  close-feathered  Buff  and  White  Cochin  females  with  the 
least  shank  and  toe  feathering. 

40.  Development. — The  greatest  development  in  the 
White  Orpington  has  occurred  since  1905.     Prior  to  that  time 


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§  8  ENGLISH  FOWLS  411 

the  fowls  of  this  variety  were  sparingly  bred  both  in  England 
and  in  America.  With  the  increased  poptdarity  of  white- 
feathered  fowls,  this  variety  of  Orpington  was  taken  up  by 
fanciers,  who  have  developed  the  fowls  into  Orpington  type, 
with  white  beaks  and  plumage  and  white  or  pinkish-white 
shanks  and  toes.  To  the  English  fanciers  belongs  the  credit 
of  the  greatest  development  in  size  and  breed  characters. 
The  main  improvement  in  plumage  color  has  been  made  in 
America. 

41.  History. — The  original  Single-Comb  White  Orping- 
ton was  produced  soon  after  the  Black  Orpington  came  into 
public  favor.  Those  first  seen,  especially  the  males,  had  the 
Langshan  shape  of  back  and  tail.  The  more  recent  types 
show  evidence  of  having  been  crossed  with  White  Dorking 
and  White  Cochin  fowls.  When  first  shown  in  America,  the 
White  Orpington  was  not  well  received.  Following  the  advent 
of  some  of  perfect  Orpington  type,  however,  the  White  Orping- 
ton became  equally  popular  with  other  white-feathered  fowls. 
The  Rose-Comb  White  Orpington  has  not  received  more  than 
passing  attention. 

42.  Description. — The  White  Orpington  must  conform 
in  every  way  to  the  shape  description  given  for  the  Black 
Orpington.  The  fowls  of  this  variety  should,  if  possible,  be 
even  more  true  to  breed  characters  than  the  Black  Orpingtons. 
Some  fowls  of  the  white  variety  are  of  almost  perfect  Orping7 
ton  type,  and  some  have  plumage  that  is  white  to  the  skin. 
They  are  more  generally  found,  however,  with  considerable 
creaminess  or  straw  color  in  their  plumage.  Females  are  freer 
from  this  defect  than  the  males.  The  color  of  the  skin  and  the 
shanks  is  more  nearly  perfect  in  this  variety  than  in  other 
varieties.  In  size  and  weight,  the  White  Orpington  is  only 
sHghtly  inferior  to  the  Black  Orpington. 

43.  Mating. — In  selecting  White  Orpington  fowls  for 
mating,  attention  must  be  given  to  both  shape  and  color. 
In  a  general  way,  both  have  been  lacking,  and  there  has  been 
a  surplus  of  poor  quality.  Only  White  Orpington  females 
having  pronoimced  excellence  in  size,  shape,  and  color  should 


412  ENGLISH  FOWLS  §  8 

be  used  as  breeders.  Fowls  that  have  white  skin  and  shanks 
can  have  the  purest  white  plumage,  including  quills,  and  this 
can  be  maintained  without  injury  to  the  color  of  the  skin  and 
shanks.  For  this  reason,  there  should  be  no  difficulty  in  estab- 
lishing pure  plumage  color  in  White  Orpingtons.  There  is, 
however,  more  difficulty  in  having  white  plumage  in  the  males 
than  in  the  females.  Breeders  must  be,  for  a  time,  at  least, 
content  with  the  best  males  they  can  get  and,  by  breeding  them 
with  white  females,  estabHsh  a  strain  that  will  produce  White 
Orpingtons  of  proper  size  and  shape,  with  at  least  a  near 
approach  to  pirre  white  pliimage.  There  is  good  evidence 
that  Buff  Orpington  blood  has  been  intermingled  with  the 
White  Orpington  blood.  Though  this  has  not  changed  the 
color  of  the  skin  and  shanks,  it  has  stained  the  plumage  of  the 
White  Orpington,  and  hence  the  breeder  must  devote  more 
time  and  care  to  the  elimination  of  this  yellow  tint  than  would 
be  needed  if  only  the  creamy- white  tint  were  present. 

Small  single  combs  that  conform  in  shape  to  a  perfect  White 
Plymouth  Rock  comb  should  be  preferred  in  both  male  and 
female  White  Orpington  breeders.  To  safeguard  this,  all 
fowls  with  bad  combs  should  be  rejected  as  unfit  for  breeding 
purposes.  This  same  rule  should  apply  to  breeding  fowls  of 
the  Rose-Comb  White  Orpington  variety,  and  the  type  of 
rose  comb  that  belongs  to  the  White  Dorking  or  the  Wyandotte 
family  should  be  preferred  to  that  of  the  Hamburg.  White 
in  the  ear  lobes  must  be  avoided.  This  defect  has  been 
acquired  naturally  from  the  Leghorn  family,  and  a  parent  having 
it  is  apt  to  transmit  it  to  the  offspring  for  many  generations. 
Enamel  white  in  ear  lobes  of  any  breed  or  variety  that  should 
have  red  ear  lobes  is  a  serious  defect. 

To  breed  White  Orpington  fowls  fit  for  exhibition,  it  is  neces- 
sary not  only  to  scrutinize  carefully  all  fowls  used  in  the  breed- 
ing pen,  but  also  thoroughly  to  investigate  their  blood  lines. 
A  careful  examination  of  the  under  plumage  of  breeders  should 
be  made.  Smut  in  the  color  may  have  come  from  a  cross  with 
the  Black  Orpington,  and  though  in  some  instances  it  may 
clear  the  plumage,  it  may  also  prove  to  be  detrimental  if  too 
freely  infused  into  a  flock. 


ENGLISH  FOWLS  413 


JUBILEE  ORPINGTON 

44.  Origin. — The  Jubilee  Orpington  originated  from 
among  the  offspring  that  resulted  when  the  crosses  were  made 
for  the  production  of  the  other  Orpington  varieties.  Many 
of  these  offspring  were  of  a  great  variety  of  colors. 

45.  Development. — The  Jubilee  Orpington  fowls  were 
developed  from  the  fowls  produced  as  just  mentioned  that  had 
plumage  color  resembling  that  of  the  Spangled  Old-English 
Game.  Though  no  color  standard  was  adopted  for  them,  they 
were  developed  into  a  separate  variety  having  the  Orpington 
shape,  and  of  beautiful  plumage  color  and  markings.  Both 
single-comb  and  rose-comb  varieties  of  these  fowls  have  been 
developed. 

46.  History. — ^The  history  of  the  Jubilee  Orpingtons 
is  identical  with  that  of  the  other  varieties.  Statements 
relative  to  their  origin,  however,  have  been  disputed,  some 
authorities  insisting  that  they  have  come  from  intermingling 
Sussex  and  Spangled  Dorking  fowls.  From  those  brought  to 
America,  fowls  of  more  than  average  quality  have  been  bred, 
but  the  variety  has  not  been  admitted  to  the  American 
Standard. 

47.  Description. — ^Jubilee  Orpington  fowls  of  both  the 
rose-comb  and  the  single-comb  variety  must  conform  to  the 
breed  characters  of  the  Orpington  farrdly.  The  color  of  their 
plumage  is  almost  identical  with  the  color  of  the  Spangled 
Old-English  Game.  The  general  color  of  breast  and  body  is 
reddish  brown,  marked  with  white  and  black.  In  the  males, 
the  ground  color  is  a  bright  mahogany;  hackle  and  back  are 
mahogany  color,  each  feather  having  a  black  center  stripe, 
a  mahogany-colored  shaft,  and  a  white  tip;  the  rest  of  the  body 
plumage  is  of  the  same  shade,  having  black  spangles  and  white 
tips.  The  wing  bows  should  match  the  hackle,  and  there 
shoiild  be  a  bar  of  black  across  the  wings;  the  primaries  and 
secondaries  are  mahogany,  black,  and  white,  the  primaries 
showing  the  most  white ;  the  sickles  are  white,  black,  black  and 


414        :  ENGLISH  FOWLS  §  8 

white,  or  black,  white,  and  mahogany;  the  coverts  are  colored 
like  the  sickles,  but  usually  have  more  white.  The  three  colors 
should  be  distinct  and  well  defined  and  so  assembled  as  to  form 
an  attractive  color  combination. 

The  females  should  match  the  males  in  color;  the  color  of 
the  entire  body  and  back  plumage  should  be  similar  to  the 
breast  color  of  the  males;  the  primaries,  secondaries,  and  tail 
feathers  shoiild  match  the  same  parts  in  the  males. 

48.  Mating. — It  is  impossible  to  give  rules  for  mating 
Jubilee  Orpington  fowls  that  can  be  practiced  with  any  cer- 
tainty of  success.  The  best  Jubilee  Orpington  fowls  that  have 
been  produced  have  come  from  mating  males  of  perfect  shape, 
rich,  brilliant  color,  and  the  least  quantity  of  white  in  any  part 
of  the  body  plumage  with  females  of  equal  quality,  perfect 
or  nearly  perfect  in  color,  and  having  more  or  less  white  in  the 
wings  and  the  tail.  From  such  matings  good  offspring  may  be 
produced.  

SPANGLED  ORPINGTON 

49.  Origin  and  History. — The  numerous  kinds  of  plu- 
mage color  that  have  come  from  the  crosses  made  to  produce 
Orpington  fowls  have  made  many  varieties.  The  Jubilee  and 
Spangled  Orpingtons  are  instances  of  this.  Spangled  Orping- 
ton fowls  of  both  the  rose-comb  and  the  single-comb  variety 
have  been  shown  as  non-standard  varieties.  They  have  ranged 
in  color  from  black  and  white,  like  the  Mottled  Java,  to  red- 
dish brown  and  white,  like  the  Jubilee  Orpington,  except  that 
they  were  mottled  with  white.  "Broken-Colored  Orpington" 
would  be  a  more  appropriate  name  for  many  of  them,  for  it 
is  possible  to  find  from  five  to  seven  colors  in  the  offspring 
from  promiscuous  matings.  They  do  not  breed  so  true  in 
color  as  the  Ancona  or  the  Houdan  fowls,  but  they  have  an 
attractive  variety  color. 

Speckled  Dorking,  Speckled,  or  broken-colored,  Sussex,  and 
Mottled  Java  fowls  are  all  like  the  Spangled  Orpington,  and 
imdoubtedly  all  have  come  from  the  intermingling  of  fowls 
with  white  and  dark  plumage. 


§  8  ENGLISH  FOWLS  415 

50.  Description. — The  latest  English  Club  Standards 
describes  the  Spangled  Orpington  as  having  beak,  legs,  and  feet 
black  and  white,  or  black  mottled  with  white;  toe  nails  and 
skin,  white;  eyes,  red  or  brown;  comb,  face,  wattles,  and  ear 
lobes,  red.  The  plumage  of  the  males  is  black  and  white; 
the  hackle  is  black,  with  white  tips ;  the  back  is  slightly  ticked 
with  white ;  the  thighs  and  fluff  have  white  spangles ;  the  breast 
is  black  with  white  spangles,  the  color  showing  in  equal  pro- 
portions; the  tail  is  black  and  white;  the  sickles  and  coverts 
are  black,  tipped  with  white. 

The  plimiage  of  the  female  should  conform  to  the  breast 
color  of  the  male.  In  both,  the  black  should  be  glossed  with 
a  green  sheen,  and  the  white  should  be  true  and  pure. 

51.  Mating. — Like  the  Speckled  Dorking,  Speckled,  or 
broken-colored,  Sussex,  and  Mottled  Java  fowls,  none  of  the 
Spangled  Orpington  fowls  can  be  depended  on  to  reproduce 
their  own  color  in  many  of  their  offspring,  or  to  breed  a  quality 
or  type  of  plumage  color  equal  to  that  of  the  Spangled  Ham- 
burg. There  are  no  rules  for  mating  that  can  be  depended  on 
to  produce  offspring  of  regular  color  and  markings.  Spangled 
Orpington  fowls  should  be  bred  for  shape  the  same  as  the  fowls 
of  the  other  Orpington  varieties. 


RECENT  VARIETIES  OF  ORPINGTON 


BLUE    ORPINGTON    AND    CUCKOO    ORPINGTON 

52.  Recently  there  were  originated  in  England  two  new 
varieties — the  Blue  Orpington  and  the  Cuckoo  Orpington.  As 
both  varieties  were  originated  together,  they  wiU  be  treated 
under  one  heading. 

The  beginning  of  both  the  Blue  Orpington  and  the  Cuckoo 
Orpington  was  in  a  crossing  of  Black  Orpington  males  with 
White  Orpington  females.  The  greater  part  of  the  offspring 
of  this  cross  were  white  fowls  and  black  fowls.  The  white 
offspring  had  blue-black  shanks  and  feet  and  eyes  of  a  dark 


416 


ENGLISH  FOWLS 


§8 


color;  the  black  offspring  had  mottled  shanks  and  feet  and  red 
or  brown  eyes;  a  very  few  of  the  cockerels  were  partly  cuckoo 
marked  (barred);  and  a  few  of  the  pullets  were  black,  faintly 
tipped  on  the  saddle  and  breast  with  cuckoo  markings. 

The  cuckoo-marked  cockerels  of  this  cross  were  mated  with 
Spangled  Orpington  pullets,  and  the  cuckoo-marked  pullets 
were  mated  with  Spangled  Orpington  cockerels.  One-half  of 
the  offspring  of  these  matings  were  Cuckoo  Orpingtons,  one- 
fourth  were  Spangled  Orpingtons,  and  of  the  other  one-fourth 
some  were  black,  some  were  white,  several  were  blue  cockerels, 
and  a  few  were  blue  pullets. 


Fig.  1 

One  of  these  blue  cockerels  was  mated  with  some  of  the 
cross-bred  white  pullets,  one  to  some  of  the  cross-bred  black 
pullets,  and  one  of  the  cross-bred  black  cockerels  was  mated 
with  the  blue  pullets.  About  two-thirds  of  the  offspring  of 
these  matings  were  blue. 

The  Cuckoo  Orpington  was  developed  by  selecting  and 
mating  the  best  of  the  cuckoo-marked  offspring  of  the  first 
cross,  and  this  selection  and  mating  was  continued  until 
Cuckoo  Orpingtons  like  those  shown  in  Fig.  1  have  been 
produced. 


§  8  ENGLISH  FOWLS  417 

53.  Description  of  Blue  Orpington. — In  both  the  male 
and  the  female  the  color  of  beak  should  be  blue;  eyes,  black 
or  brown,  black  preferred;  comb,  face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes, 
a  bright  red;  legs,  blue;  toe  nails,  light  or  white.  The  plu- 
mage color  of  the  male  should  be  in  neck,  hackle,  saddle,  wing 
bows,  back,  and  tail,  a  dark  slaty  blue ;  the  rest  of  the  plumage 
should  be  of  a  medium  slaty  blue;  each  feather  is  laced  with  a 
darker  shade  of  blue.  The  plumage  color  of  the  female  should 
be  a  mediimi  slaty  blue  throughout,  laced  with  a  darker  shade 
except  on  the  head  and  neck,  where  both  the  body  color  and 
the  lacing  is  of  a  darker  shade;  the  color  and  markings  of  the 
body  plumage  of  the  female  must  match  the  color  and  mark- 
ings of  the  breast  plumage  of  the  male.  The  size,  shape,  and 
breed  characters  are  the  same  as  in  all  Orpingtons. 

54.  Description  of  Cuckoo  Orpington. — In  Cuckoo 
Orpingtons,  the  beak  should  be  white;  eyes,  red;  comb,  face, 
wattles,  and  ear  lobes,  red,  no  white  being  permissible  either 
in  face  or  lobes;  shanks  and  feet,  white  or  white  mottled  with 
black,  white  being  preferred;  toe  nails  very  light  or  white. 
The  plumage  color  of  both  the  male  and  the  female  should  be 
a  light  bluish-gray  ground  color,  each  feather  being  barred 
across  with  a  darker  blue  black,  proportionate  to  the  size  of 
the  feather,  and  the  same  on  all  parts  of  the  body.  The  closer 
the  color  and  markings  come  to  the  color  and  markings  of  the 
Barred  Plymouth  Rock,  the  more  perfect  will  they  be  con- 
sidered. The  size,  shape,  and  breed  characters  are  the  same 
as  in  other  Orpingtons. 

COLUMBIAN    ORPINGTON 

55.  Another  new  variety  of  Orpington  has  been  originated 
in  America.  The  fowls  of  this  variety  were  first  produced  in 
Maine  and  Massachusetts  and  were  named  Ermine  Orpington. 
Their  plumage  so  closely  resembles  that  of  the  Columbian 
Plymouth  Rocks  that,  when  they  are  admitted  to  the  Standard, 
they  are  likely  to  be  called  Columbian  Orpington. 

56.  Origin. — The  Columbian  Orpington  fowls  were  orig- 
inated by  Angier  L.  Goodwin  and  were  bred  from  Orpington 


418  ENGLISH  FOWLS  §  8 

sports  of  the  color  of  the  Light  Brahma.  Whether  these  sports 
came  from  the  Black  Orpingtons  or  from  a  cross  of  Black  and 
White  Orpingtons  cannot  be  stated.  These  sports  were  mated 
with  White  Orpington  hens  and  the  offspring  were  selected, 
mated,  remated,  and  bred  for  the  improvement  of  color.  As 
this  variety  has  descended  from  Orpington  fowls,  a  better  type 
has  been  developed  than  would  have  been  the  case  had  Brahma 
or  Coltimbian  Plymouth  Rock  fowls  been  bred  into  them. 

57.  Development. — The  development  of  the  Columbian 
Orpington  has  scarcely  begun,  but  continual  care  in  breeding 
will  undoubtedly  make  the  fowls  what  they  should  be. 

58.  History. — The  sports  that  came  from  the  other  vari- 
eties of  Orpingtons  cannot  be  traced  to  any  certain  matings. 
When  a  sport  of  the  Light  Brahma  color  made  its  appearance, 
it  was  mated  to  the  best  advantage  and  the  offspring  selected 
with  care.  The  variety  was  named  Ermine,  after  the  little 
animal  of  that  name.  This  variety  was  first  shown  in  Boston 
during  the  winter  of  1909. 

59.  Description. — The  Columbian  Orpington  fowls  should 
be  of  Orpington  shape  and  have  the  same  plumage  color  as 
defined  in  the  American  Standard  for  the  Columbian  Wyan- 
dotte and  the  Colimibian  Plymouth  Rock,  with  the  exception 
that  the  beak,  shanks,  and  toes  should  be  white  or  pinkish 
white,  and  the  skin  should  be  white. 

60.  Mating. — The  only  rule  that  can  be  laid  down  for 
mating  Columbian  Orpington  fowls  is  to  select  those  of  the 
best  Orpington  shape  and  of  the  plumage  color  of  the  Colum- 
bian Plymouth  Rock.  The  best  of  the  offspring  should  be 
selected,  mated,  and  remated,  and  in  doing  this  the  fancier 
should  always  bear  in  mind  what  the  proper  breed  characters 
and  plimiage  colors  are. 


ENGLISH  FOWLS  419 


SCOTCH  GRAY 

61.  There  are  a  few  fowls  peciiliar  to  Scotland.  The  two 
best  known  are  the  Scotch  Gray  and  the  Scotch  Dumpy.  The 
Scotcli  Gray  is  much  like  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rock,  and  the 
Scotch  Dumpy  closely  resembles  the  Creeper.  These  fowls 
have  never  been  bred  to  any  extent  for  exhibition,  though  in 
recent  years  the  Scotch  Gray  has  been  so  improved  as  to  bring 
it  into  public  notice  as  an  exhibition  fowl. 

62.  Origin. — ^The  Scotch  Gray  fowls  originated  in  Scot- 
land, but  so  little  is  known  of  them  that  it  is  impossible  to  make 
authentic  statements  regarding  their  origin.  Undoubtedly 
they  have  resulted  from  intermingling  fowls  of  dark  and  of 
light  plumage. 

63.  Development. — The  development  of  the  Scotch  Gray 
fowls  has  been  more  a  matter  of  chance  than  of  selected  matings. 
Prior  to  the  formation  of  the  Scotch  Gray  Club  in  England, 
there  was  but  little  interest  in  uniformity  of  size  and  color, 
but  since  the  formation  of  the  club,  a  standard  for  them  has 
been  compiled. 

64.  History. — In  regard  to  the  history  of  the  Scotch  Gray 
the  secretary  of  the  Scotch  Gray  Club  states:  "The  Scotch 
Gray,  or  'Chick  Marley,'  as  Scotch  country  people  used  to 
call  it,  is  one  of  our  good,  all-round  breeds  of  poultry.  They 
are  good  layers  of  fairly  large  eggs  of  a  pale  cream  color.  They 
are  not  good  broody  hens,  often  sitting  only  10  or  12  days 
and  then  deserting  the  nest.  At  a  meeting  of  the  Scotch  Gray 
Club  some  years  ago  it  was  agreed,  after  some  discussion,  to 
class  them  as  non-sitters.  They  are  excellent  table  fowls, 
being  finely  covered  with  flesh  of  a  very  close  texture  and  fine 
flavor,  and  pale  cream  in  color.  They  are  also  very  prolific 
fowls,  and  when  crossed  with  any  breed,  the  offspring  will  show 
distinctive  traces  in  size,  shape,  and  color  of  the  Scotch  Gray 
parent." 


420  ENGLISH  FOWLS  §  8 

65.  Description. — The  Scotch  Gray  fowls  are  described 
by  the  Scotch  Gray  Club  Standard  as  fowls  of  neat  appearance, 
more  like  the  Andalusian  in  formation  than  the  general-purpose 
fowls.  They  have  single  combs.  The  males  weigh  from  9  to 
11  pounds,  and  the  females  from  7  to  9  pounds.  Both  sexes 
have  beaks  white,  or  white  striped  with  black;  the  eyes,  face, 
comb,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  are  bright  red;  and  the  shanks  are 
white  or  white  mottled  with  black.  The  ground  color  of  the 
males  should  be  a  pale,  gra^dsh  blue,  finely  and  evenly  barred 
with  a  dark  metallic  blue ;  the  alternating  bands  of  the  barring 
should  be  equal  in  width  and  proportioned  to  the  size  of  the 
feather.  The  color  should  be  the  same  in  all  parts  of  the  body; 
the  markings  should  be  small,  even,  and  sharply  defined.  The 
female  should  be  of  the  same  color  as  the  male,  with  larger  and 
more  distinct  markings.  Illustrations  of  these  fowls  show 
them  colored  like  the  Barred  Pl}Tnouth  Rock,  the  end  of  each 
feather  having  a  marking  of  dark  that  conforms  to  the  shape 
of  the  feather. 

66.  Mating. — In  mating  Scotch  Gray  fowls  for  color,  the 
same  rules  must  be  followed  as  when  mating  Barred  Plymouth 
Rock  fowls.  Scotch  fanciers  say  that  when  mating  fowls  of 
this  breed  for  producing  the  best  form  and  color,  males  of  per- 
fect shape  shotild  be  selected;  they  should  be  of  meditim  size 
and  evenly  marked.  They  should  be  mated  with  hens  or  pul- 
lets of  equal  quality  and  of  good  color.  Never  breed  from  a 
male  or  female  that  has  considerable  white  in  the  wing  or  tail. 
The  only  way  to  succeed  with  them  is  to  have  them  line  bred, 
with  blood  lines  equal  to  the  best  Barred  Plymouth  Rock. 


§  8  ENGLISH  FOWLS  421 


SCOTCH  DUMPY 

67.  Origin. — The    origin    of    the    Scotcli    Dumpy    is 

unknown.  Mention  of  these  fowls  was  made  in  Scotland  and 
America  about  1850.  They  were  then  known  by  many  names, 
none  of  which  gives  an^^  intimation  of  their  origin. 

68.  History. — ^Fowls  of  the  character  of  the  Scotch 
Dimipy  were  mentioned  by  Rae  in  1678.  They  have  been 
known  as  Bakies,  Jumpers,  and  originally,  in  England,  as 
Grigs.  They  have  not  been  developed  or  bred  to  any  extent 
even  for  utility  purposes.  Harrison  Weir  states  that  the  hens 
were  good  sitters  and  mothers,  and,  when  very  3^oimg,  the  chicks 
were  tender  to  rear.  As  a  breed  they  were  particulary  active, 
being  fond  of  perching  on  trees  and  fi}"ing  about.  As  table 
fowls  they  were  said  to  be  excellent,  and  their  quaint  appear- 
ance made  them  attractive  as  household  pets. 

69.  Description. — The  Scotch  Dumpy  fowls  are  of  fairly 
good  size,  T^ith  single  combs,  red  ear  lobes,  and  heaw  body 
formation.  Their  heoNx  body  formation  is  more  marked  from 
the  fact  that  their  shanks  do  not  exceed  1|  or  2  inches  in  length, 
and  are  thus  out  of  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  body.  Some 
of  the  males  weigh  as  much  as  8  pounds;  females  weigh  from 
5  to  6  poimds.  They  are  said  to  be  better  table  meat  than  the 
Dorkings,  and  are  highly  esteemed  in  their  native  heath  for 
hatching  and  brooding  chicks.  The  English  Club  Standards 
states  that  the  shanks  of  these  fowls  shall  be  not  over  1^  inches 
long;  that  their  general  body  formation  shall  be  hea^^,  and  that 
they  shall  move  about  with  a  waddling  gait  like  a  duck.  As 
the  Scotch  Dimip}^  Standard  puts  it,  "the  extreme  shortness 
of  leg  gives  them  the  appearance  of  swimming  on  dry  land." 
The  beak  and  shanks  must  match  in  color;  the  eyes,  face, 
comb,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  must  be  red;  the  plumage  may 
be  of  any  color,  silvery  gra^^  Dark  Dorking,  cuckoo,  or  black 
being  preferred.     The  shanks  should  be  white,  except  in  the 


422  ENGLISH  FOWLS  §8 

black  variety,  which  must  have  shanks  of  black,  slate,  or  cuckoo 
color,  which  may  be  mottled.  Shortness  of  leg  must  not  be 
considered  as  of  most  importance.  The  fowls  must  be  large, 
low  set  on  the  legs,  and  very  heavy  in  body.  They  must  possess 
at  least  a  moderate  qualification  in  plumage  color,  that  is,  the 
pltimage  color  must  be  good  of  its  kind. 

70.  Mating. — There  is  no  set  rule  for  mating  Scotch 
Dimipy  fowls  beyond  the  fact  that  in  the  breeding  fowls  size 
and  shape  must  accord  perfectly  to  Standard  demands,  and 
the  variety  color  preferred  must  be  of  equal  quality  to  that 
of  the  same  variety  color  in  other  breeds. 


SUSSEX 


ORIGIN  AND  HISTORY 

71.  Origin. — In  the  early  days  of  poultry  growing  in 
England,  Sussex  was  the  locality  that  produced  the  best  table 
poultry.  Fowls  grown  in  that  locality  became  known  as 
Sussex  fowls.  In  speaking  of  them,  Harrison  Weir  groups 
them  as  Kent,  Sussex,  Siurey,  and  Dorking  fowls,  and  from 
his  illustrations  of  them,  a  person  might  be  led  to  believe  that 
many  kinds  of  fowls  were  raised  in  that  locality  at  that  time; 
some  were  short  in  their  legs  and  others  had  longer  legs,  but 
all  had  the  body  formation  best  suited  for  table  poultry.  A 
poultry  expert  of  Sussex  stated  that  during  a  period  of  10  years 
he  had  fattened  a  large  nimiber  of  these  fowls  and  shown 
them  as  dressed  poultry ;  that  he  had  been  very  successful  with 
them,  and  had  won  many  prizes.  A  pair  of  his  Light  Sussex 
cockerels  won  first  prize  and  the  medal  as  the  best  in  the  show 
room.  He  makes  a  point  of  the  fact  that  they  were  barely 
18  weeks  old,  and  when  killed  and  plucked,  the  pair  weighed  a 
little  more  than  20  pounds,  and  that  these  were  not  the  heavi- 
est fowls  of  the  kind  that  he  had  produced.  He  states  that 
they  had  not  been  fostered  or  caponized,  but  were  ordinary 
chickens  picked  up  from  the  farms  and  put  through  a  fatten- 


§  8  ENGLISH  FOWLS  423 

ing  process  for  3  weeks.  This  is  the  character  of  fowl  men- 
tioned by  Moubray  in  early  days,  from  which  the  greater  part 
of  aU  white-skinned  poultry  bred  in  England  have  a  part  or 
all  of  their  origin. 

To  fanciers,  imtil  recently,  Sussex  fowls  existed  in  a  state 
of  dormancy.  In  July,  1903,  the  Sussex  Poultry  Club  was 
formed  and  three  varieties  of  the  breed  were  recognized,  namely, 
Light,  Red,  and  Speckled;  in  1904  these  varieties  were  shown 
in  London  at  the  Show  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of 
England.  The  fowls  shown  were  not  of  the  best;  they  were 
irregular  in  form  and  color,  and  showed  the  influence  of  the 
injudicious  interminghng  of  many  colors.  Since  that  time,  a 
standard  has  been  made  for  them  and  they  have  become  fairly 
popular  in  England  as  exhibition  fowls. 

72.  History. — Edward  Brown,  F.  L.  S.,  of  England,  states 
that  the  foundation  of  the  Sussex  fowls,  like  that  of  the  Dorking, 
is  difficult  to  trace,  and  the  conclusion,  namely,  that  aU  were 
originally  the  same,  can  scarcely  be  avoided.  In  numerous 
publications  that  have  mentioned  poultry  keeping  during  a 
period  of  almost  200  years,  reference  is  made  to  breeds  and 
varieties  that  correspond  closely  to  the  description  of  the  fowls 
bred  in  and  about  Sussex,  England.  From  them,  the  Dorking, 
the  Orpington,  and  the  modem  type  of  Sussex  fowls  have  been 
developed. 

An  early  writer  states  that  among  the  many  varieties  of 
Dorking  fowls  might  be  found  some  in  which  the  fifth  toe  was 
lacking,  and  that  these  were  known  as  Sussex,  or  Surrey,  fowls. 
Another  says  that  the  old  Sussex  or  Kent  fowls  were  closely 
allied  to  the  Dorkings.  Harrison  Weir  remarks  that  the  Sur- 
rey, or  Sussex,  fowls  were  generally  of  a  gray  color,  often  sandy 
brown,  or  brown  like  a  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  hen.  It 
was  the  general  opinion  that  the  best  Sussex  fowls  were  those 
having  color  similar  to  that  of  the  Gray  Dorking.  The  fowls 
having  the  brown  or  brownish  color,  like  the  Black-Breasted 
Red  Game  hen,  were  called  the  Red  Dorking  or  Red  Sussex, 
according  as  they  had  five  or  four  toes.  This  shows  how 
closely  they  all  reseinble(J  one  another, 


424  ENGLISH  FOWLS  §  8 

The  originals  of  the  present  Sussex  fowls  were  plentiftilly 
grown  in  and  about  Surrey  and  Kent,  England.  Their  dis- 
tinguishing feattu-es  were  white  skin  and  shanks  and  perfect 
form  for  table  poultry.  The  Dark,  the  Silver-Gray,  and  the 
Speckled  Dorking  fowls  were  selected  from  them,  each  having 
the  distinguishing  mark  of  five  toes.  The  varieties  of  Sussex 
fowls,  as  now  recognized,  were  plentiful  at  that  time;  yet  not 
then  so  well  separated  and  bred  for  variety  color  as  now.  A 
club  was  formed  in  their  interest  in  1903,  and  since  that  time 
the  Light,  the  Red,  or  Brown,  and  the  Speckled  Sussex  fowls 
have  been  bred  to  form  and  color. 


LIGHT  SUSSEX 

73.  Development. — The  Light  Sussex  fowls  have  been 
developed  by  selecting  the  best  of  their  kind  from  the  large 
number  grown  in  the  Sussex  districts.  These  fowls  have  the 
same  general  appearance  as  the  Colimibian  Plymouth  Rock, 
and  they  have  been  bred  according  to  the  rules  for  producing 
color  in  Light  Brahmas. 

74.  Description. — The  Light  Sussex  have  the  same  breed 
characters  as  the  average  grade  of  Dorking  fowls.  They  are 
more  upright  in  form,  as  well  as  more  active  than  the  Dorking. 
The  body  formation  is  more  extended  than  that  of  the  Plym- 
outh Rock,  and  they  have  single  combs.  The  face,  comb, 
wattles,  eyes,  and  ear  lobes  are  red;  the  skin  and  shanks  are 
white.  They  average  from  1  to  2  poimds  heavier  than  the 
Plymouth  Rock  fowls. 

75.  Mating. — In  mating  Light  Sussex  and  all  other  vari- 
eties of  Sussex  fowls,  marked  attention  must  be  given  to  the 
selection  of  breeding  fowls  of  the  size  and  shape  to  conform 
to  their  description.  To  establish  and  improve  color,  the  same 
methods  of  mating  must  be  adopted  as  have  been  suggested 
for  mating  Light  Brahma  or  Columbian  Plymouth  Rock  fowls 
for  plumage  color.  Care  must  be  given  to  the  preservation 
of  the  proper  color  of  the  shanks  and  skin  in  all  varieties. 


§  8  ENGLISH  FOWLS  425 


RED  SUSSEX 

76.  Development. — The  Red  Sussex  fowls  are  frequently- 
called  Brown  Sussex.  They  have  been  developed  by  selecting 
the  Red  Dorking,  or  Sussex,  fowls  that  had  but  iowc  toes  and 
breeding  them  to  establish  proper  breed  formation  and  variety 
color. 

77.  Description. — The  Red  Sussex  are  fowls  of  large 
size,  and  have  a  body  formation  somewhat  like  that  of  the 
largest  Andalusian,  with  the  exception  that  the  neck  and  legs 
of  both  the  male  and  the  female  are  shorter  in  the  Red  Sussex 
than  in  the  Andalusian.  The  English  description  says  that 
they  are  very  deep  bodied,  but  are  not  so  dense  as  the  Dorkings. 
This  is  more  specially  noticeable  in  the  hens.  It  is  claimed  that 
they  average  less  bone  and  offal,  or  waste,  than  the  Dorkings, 
and  that,  though  the  breastbone  is  long  and  carried  well  for- 
wards, there  is  less  inclination  to  lean  forwards  or  downwards 
among  the  Sussex  than  the  Dorkings.  The  comb  and  head 
should  be  of  medium  size;  the  eyes,  face,  comb,  wattles,  and 
ear  lobes  should  be  bright  red;  and  the  shanks,  feet,  toes,  and 
skin  should  be  white  and  fine  in  texture.  The  plumage  of  the 
males  must  be  dark  chestnut  brown,  with  a  greater  depth  of 
color  on  the  saddle  and  wing  bows;  the  neck  hackle  must  be 
rich  brown,  striped  with  black;  the  wings,  dark  brown,  with 
black  nights;  the  main  tail  feathers,  black;  the  tail  coverts,  a 
dark  or  reddish  brown.  In  the  females,  the  neck  hackle  should 
be  dark  brown,  striped  with  black.  The  body  color  through- 
out should  be  brown;  the  main  tail  feathers  and  flights,  dark 
brown  or  black.  Preference  is  given  to  fowls  of  this  variety 
that  have  nearly  the  same  plumage  color  as  Rhode  Island  Red 
fowls. 

78.  Mating. — In  mating  Red  Sussex  fowls  it  is  important 
to  select  the  breeders  with  a  view  to  sustaining  the  proper 
breed  characters  in  the  offspring.  In  mating  for  color,  if  a 
preference  exists  for  the  color  and  markings  of  the  Rhode 
Island  Red,  select  the  fowls  for  the  same  color  as  is  required 
for  Rhode  Island  Red  fowls.     If  there  is  a  demand  for  the  color 


426  ENGLISH  FOWLS  §  8 

and  markings  of  either  the  Black  or  the  Brown-Red  Old-EngHsh 
Game  fowls,  select  and  mate  fowls  that  may  be  expected  to 
produce  such  colors.  The  best  results  are  obtained  by  adher- 
ing to  the  reddish-brown  color  throughout,  marked  with  black 
on  the  neck  of-  both  male  and  female,  and  on  the  wing  bars 
and  saddle  feathers  of  the  male. 


SPECKLED  SUSSEX 

79.  In  the  description  of  Orpington  fowls,  the  fact  is  men- 
tioned that  both  the  Jubilee  and  the  Spangled  Orpington  were 
closely  related  to  the  Sussex  fowls.  The  Speckled  Sussex 
fowls  have  the  same  general  appearance  and  breed  characters 
as  the  Jubilee  and  Spangled  Orpingtons.  There  is  so  little  dif- 
ference in  them  as  ordinarily  bred  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to 
separate  them.  The  tendency  has  been  for  tight  feathering 
in  the  Sussex  fowls  and  loose  feathering  in  the  Orpington  fowls 
for  such  a  length  of  time  that  these  fowls  are  now  separated 
more  because  of  this  distinction  than  because  of  any  difference 
in  the  normal  shape,  color,  and  markings.  In  the  breeding  of 
the  Speckled  Sussex,  the  breeders  must  be  selected  for  shape 
and  color  so  as  to  produce  fowls  true  to  Sussex  breed  charac- 
ters and  of  the  chosen  variety  color. 


FRENCH,  POLISH,  AND  MISCEL- 
LANEOUS FOWLS 


FRENCH 


REMARKS 

1.  The  French  breeds  that  will  be  considered  in  this  Sec- 
tion are  the  Crevecoeur,  the  Houdan,  and  the  La  Fleche,  which 
are  recognized  by  the  American  Standard,  and  the  La  Bresse, 
or  Bresse  as  called  in  America,  the  Bourbourg,  or  Bourborey, 
and  the  FaveroUe,  which  are  not  recognized  by  the  American 
Standard.  There  are  other  French  breeds,  but  they  are  Httle 
known  outside  of  their  own  coimtry. 

Edward  Brown,  of  England,  states  that  there  were  more 
breeds  and  varieties  of  fowls  in  France  than  in  any  other  cotmtry 
with  which  he  was  familiar.  The  main  object  in  France  having 
been  to  conserve  and  improve  the  fecundity  and  the  table 
properties,  the  fixity  of  external  character  was  adopted,  because 
it  was  foimd  that  by  so  doing  the  perpetuation  of  such  proper- 
ties were  secured.  There  is  a  considerable  difference  in  the 
class  of  fowls  kept  in  the  various  districts  of  France,  but  in 
each  district  the  fowls  are  remarkably  uniform. 

It  is  impossible  to  cite  a  common  origin  for  French  fowls. 
The  French  people  were  the  first  to  give  marked  attention  to 
the  production  of  poultry.  The  people  of  no  country  have 
ever  given  so  much  attention  to  poultry  for  utility  piuposes 
as  those  of  France.  Less  attention,  perhaps,  has  been  given 
in  France  than  elsewhere  to  the  cultivation  of  fowls  for  exhi- 
bition. The  fowls  of  Belgium  have  been  the  only  rivals  of 
those  of  France  for  egg  production  and  market  qualities. 

427 


428  FRENCH,  POLISH,  AND  §9 


CREVECCEUR 

2.  Origin. — ^Judging  from  the  statements  made  by  W.  B. 
Tegetmeier,  of  England,  the  Crevecoeur  is  the  oldest  of  the 
standard-bred  fowls  of  France.  He  states  that  some  idea  of 
their  value  may  be  gained  from  the  fact  that  at  the  first  great 
agricultural  exhibit  held  in  Paris  in  1855,  two  equal  sets  of 
prizes  were  offered  for  poultry,  the  first  for  Crevecoeur  fowls, 
and  the  second  for  all  other  kinds  taken  together.  The 
Crevecoeur,  as  seen  in  America,  and  as  described  in  the  Amer- 
ican Standard,  has  been  remodeled  by  the  English  from  the 
original  French  type  into  a  fowl  that  is  extremely  fanciful. 

It  is  freely  admitted  that  the  Crevecoeur  breed  originated 
in  the  locality  in  France  from  which  it  takes  its  name,  and  that 
it  was  produced  by  crossing  Pohsh  with  fowls  of  one  of  the 
varieties  peculiar  to  France.  In  early  days,  special  mention- 
was  made  of  the  fact  that  the  Crevecoeur  fowls  laid  large  eggs 
with  white  shells.  This  stamps  their  ancestors  as  one  of  the 
Italian  varieties,  and  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  they  came 
from  crosses  made  with  the  Polish  and  the  Italian  fowls,  from 
which  originated  the  active  fowl  written  of  by  Mr.  Vivian  in 
1853,  and  these  were  adopted  by  the  fanciers  of  England, 
who,  by  mating,  selecting,  and  rem'ating,  have  created  the 
present  type  of  Crevecoetu-. 

3.  Development. — In  France,  the  Crevecoeur  fowls  were 
developed  for  egg  production  and  market.  Lemoine,  a  French 
writer,  says  that  they  are  easily  fattened,  and  that  in  all  dis- 
tricts where  they  are  extensively  bred  they  are  selected  and 
fattened  into  the  finest  table  poultry.  English  poultrymen 
have  developed  them  into  the  present  type  of  fowl,  having 
greater  proportions  than  formerly. 

4.  History. — The  Crevecoeur  fowls  were  first  referred  to 
as  Black  Polish,  or  black  fowls  having  black  crests  and  beards; 
later,  they  were  named  after  the  village  in  which  they  orig- 
inated. They  were  formerly  bred  with  black,  with  white, 
and  with  blue  plumage,  and  were  much  smaller  than  at  pres- 
ent.    Later,  the  English  fanciers  made  them  into  large  fowls, 


H^;, 


§  9  MISCELLANEOUS  FOWLS  429 

with  large  crests  and  beards,  and  black  plumage  throughout. 
At  the  present  time,  they  are  but  sparingly  bred  outside  of 
France. 

5.  Description. — ^A  marked  peculiarity  of  the  Crevecoeur, 
as  well  as  of  other  French  varieties,  is  their  antler,  or  V-shaped, 
combs.  In  shape,  the  Crevecoeur  resembles  the  Cochin  more 
than  a  fowl  of  the  American  or  Polish  breeds.  The  fowls  are 
described  as  large,  broad  in  the  back,  full  and  round  in  the 
breast,  and  having  both  length  and  breadth  between  the  thighs. 
The  fiuif  is  rather  short  in  comparison  with  that  of  members  of 
the  Cochin  family.  They  are  short  in  the  legs  and  compactly 
built,  have  large  oval  crests  and  fiill  beards,  which  hide  the 
entire  head  except  the  comb,  beak,  and  wattles.  Their  plu- 
mage is  a  rich,  glossy  black ;  their  shanks  and  feet  are  very  dark ; 
their  eyes  are  bright  red.  The  skin  of  the  Crevecoeur,  like  that 
of  fowls  of  all  early  French  varieties,  is  white.  The  Standard 
weights  for  this  breed  are:  Cocks,  8  pounds;  cockerels  and 
hens,  7  pounds;  pullets,  6  pounds. 

6.  Mating. — The  value  of  the  exhibition  qualities  of  the 
Crevecoeur  depends  so  much  on  the  size  and  shape  of  the  crest 
and  beard  as  to  make  these  features  of  great  importance.  In 
selecting  fowls  from  which  to  breed  offspring  for  exhibition, 
special  attention  must  be  given  to  perfect  formation  of  the 
body,  crest,  beard,  and  comb.  Other  considerations  are  size, 
and  black  plumage  that  glistens  with  a  rich,  brilliant  sheen. 
To  obtain  all  these,  the  breeding  stock  must  be  of  almost 
perfect  quality. 

Crevecoeur  fowls  were  originally  of  uncertain  plumage  color, 
and  even  at  the  present  time  both  red  and  white  feathers  are 
apt  to  show  in  the  offspring  This  necessitates  care  in  select- 
ing the  parent  stock  from  fowls  that  are  perfect  in  all  require- 
ments of  the  breed  and  that  have  been  line  bred  from  a  strain 
that  is  known  to  produce  offspring  of  superior  quality. 


430  FRENCH,  POLISH,  AND  §9 


HOTJDAN 

7.  Origin. — The  Houdan  fowls  were  originated  in  France 
and  named  after  the  locaHty  in  which  they  have  been  bred 
for  more  than  a  century.  Early  poultry  authorities  say  that 
the  Houdan  was  the  Dorking  of  France  The  fowls  have  five 
toes  and  speckled  or  mottled  plimiage,  and  recall  the  old- 
fashioned  Colored  Dorking  that  existed  before  an  attempt  had 
been  made  to  breed  them  into  fashionable  form  or  color. 
Undoubtedly  they  resulted  from  the  union  of  Polish,  or  early 
five-toed  Roman  fowls,  and  one  of  the  many  kinds  bred  in 
France  at  the  time  of  their  origin.  Edward  Brown  has  stated 
that  they  originated  from  intermingling  Black  Polish,  Creve- 
coeur,  and  the  common  five-toed  fowls.  From  what  source 
the  leaf  comb  emanated  is  imknown. 

8.  Development. — The  Houdan  fowls  have  been  devel- 
oped from  the  early,  sparingly  built  fowls  with  small  crest, 
speckled  plumage,  and  the  uncertain  character  of  five  toes 
into  fowls  of  larger  size,  regular  formation,  broken-colored 
plumage  with  regular  markings,  beautiful  crests,  beards,  and 
combs,  with  the  peculiarity  of  five  toes  so  strongly  established 
as  to  reproduce  almost  to  a  certainty.  In  their  development, 
the  French  have  clung  to  market  qualities.  The  English  fan- 
ciers have  changed  the  Houdan  in  so  many  ways  as  to  make 
it  almost  a  distinctive  breed  as  compared  with  the  Houdan  of 
France,  and  the  American  fanciers  have  so  changed  the  breed 
as  to  make  the  fowls  quite  unlike  either  of  the  other  types. 

9.  History. — The  Houdan  fowls  were  distributed  through 
many  parts  of  France  more  than  a  century  ago.  The  first 
record  of  their  introduction  into  England  was  in  1850.  Shortly 
after  their  appearance  in  England,  they  were  accepted  as  a 
fancier's  fowl  and  were  bred  largely  for  exhibition.  From 
England  they  were  brought  to  America  in  early  days.  The 
Houdan,  the  Crevecoeur,  and  the  La  Fleche  are  mentioned 
in  the  Standard  of  1867,  and  the  comb  of  the  Houdan  is 
described  as  a  leaf  comb. 


1 9  MISCELLANEOUS  FOWLS  431 

The  type  of  Houdan  bred  in  England  and  in  America  at  that 
time  was  aUke,  including  the  comb,  until  a  change  was  made  in 
the  Standard  of  1883,  which  declared  for  the  horn  comb, 
shaped  like  the  letter  V.  Daniel  Pinckney,  of  Onondaga, 
New  York,  claimed  that  the  antler,  or  V-shaped,  comb  made 
its  appearance  naturally  in  his  flock  of  Houdan  fowls.  Others 
claim  that  Crevecoeur  were  bred  with  Houdan  fowls  to  darken 
their  plumage,  and  from  the  introduction  of  this  breed  the 
antler  comb  made  its  appearance.  Since  1883,  the  antler 
comb  has  been  accepted  for  Houdans. 

10,  Description. — The  English  Standard  describes  the 
Houdan  as  more  like  the  Dorking  than  any  other  breed.  The 
American  Standard  is  not  so  pronounced  in  its  description, 
yet  the  statement  is  made  that  the  Houdan  resembles  the 
Dorking  in  shape  and  size,  and  that  the  crest  is  one  of  the  most 
important  featirres.  The  greatest  difference  between  the 
English  and  the  American  Standard  is  in  the  description  of 
comb  and  plumage  color.  The  Enghsh  Standard  says  that 
the  comb  shall  be  a  well-defined  leaf  comb,  somewhat  resem- 
bling a  butterfly,  placed  in  the  center  of  the  head  against  the 
crest.  It  must  be  neat  and  of  mediimi  size.  The  American 
Standard  says  that  the  comb  shall  be  Y  shaped. 

In  color,  the  English  Standard  calls  for  red  eyes,  bright-red 
comb,  face,  and  wattles,  white  or  pinkish-white  ear  lobes,  and 
black-and-white  plumage,  evenly  mottled;  the  breast  may  be 
lighter  than  the  body  plumage.  In  yoimg  fowls,  black  pre- 
dominates, but  the  mottling  must  be  even  and  true.  The 
legs  and  feet  should  be  pinkish  white,  the  white  mottled  with 
blue  or  black. 

The  American  Standard  describes  the  Houdan  as  having 
white  ear  lobes,  a  bright-red  comb,  face,  and  wattles;  reddish- 
bay  eyes;  and  black  plumage  mottled  with  white,  with  less 
white  than  is  demanded  in  the  English  Standard.  The  shanks 
and  toes  must  be  of  the  same  color  as  required  in  the  English 
Standard. 

The  crest  and  head  points  are  of  importance.  The  crest 
must  be  large  and  globular,  and  as  nearly  perfect  in  color  as 


432  FRENCH,  POLISH,  AND  §  9 

possible.  Splits  or  divisions  of  any  kind  in  the  crest  will 
almost  exclude  them  from  the  show  room.  In  addition  to 
this,  they  must  have  a  well-defined  beard  growing  beneath 
the  beak  and  about  the  throat,  have  a  Y-shaped  comb,  and  be 
in  perfect  condition.  All  of  these  points  are  difficult  to  obtain 
in  a  fowl  that  conforms  to  the  Houdan  type  and  has  generous 
size  and  proper  pliimage  color. 

In  the  color  illustration  a  pair  of  Houdan  fowls  is  shown 
that  conform  to  the  American  type.  These  are  portraits 
of  the  best  that  were  shown  in  America  during  the  winter  of 
1910-11.  The  female  in  the  background  is  an  English  prize 
winner.  It  will  be  seen  from  this  illustration  that  black  pre- 
dominates in  the  American  type  and  that  more  white  in  the 
plumage  is  preferred  in  England.  The  weights  of  Houdan 
fowls  are:  Cocks,  7|  pounds;  cockerels  and  hens,  6|  pounds; 
pullets,  5^  pounds.  It  is  not  imusual,  however,  for  Houdans 
to  exceed  these  weights. 

11.  Mating. — The  chief  difficulty  in  breeding  Houdan 
fowls  to  conform  to  the  American  Standard  is  the  inchnation 
to  produce  offspring  much  too  light  in  pltimage  and  small  in 
size.  This  breed  has  been  so  persistently  inbred  to  produce 
head  points  and  plimiage  color  that  conforms  to  Standard 
description  that  its  size  has  been  reduced  and  the  vitality 
lessened.  To  overcome  this,  mature  hens  of  large  size  must 
be  used  in  the  mating,  and  equal  care  must  be  given  to  the 
selection  for  large,  well-formed  crests  and  satisfactory  plumage 
color.  Pullets  that  are  too  dark  for  exhibition  are  apt  to  show 
siifficient  white  after  their  first  molt.  All  females  and  a  nimi- 
ber  of  males  acquire  more  white  each  time  they  molt.  In  all 
matings,  males  that  are  too  dark  for  exhibition  will  be  safer  to 
use  than  those  that  have  light  pltimage.  Small  females  of 
improper  formation  are  of  no  value  in  the  breeding  pen.  Exhi- 
bition Houdan  fowls  can  be  produced  only  from  stock  that  has 
been  carefuUy  bred  for  the  establishing  of  a  strain  that  will 
reproduce  better  than  themselves.  The  Houdan  is  one  of  the 
most  difficiilt  breeds  to  produce  in  perfection ;  it  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  breed  fowls  of  good  quality  from  any  but  the  best. 


^t^^i4K 


§  9  MISCELLANEOUS  FOWLS  433 


LA  FLECHE 

12.  Origin. — So  little  is  known  of  the  origin  of  La  Fleche 
fowls  that  it  is  impossible  to  tell  of  them  with  any  certainty. 
What  is  known  can  be  told  better  in  their  history. 

13.  Development. — But  little  is  known  of  the  early 
development  of  the  La  Fleche  fowls.  Since  about  1850,  they 
have  been  bred  in  England  to  Standard  requirements.  But 
few  have  been  bred  in  America.  Aside  from  the  development 
that  would  natiirally  follow  market  requirements,  but  little 
change  has  been  made  in  them  for  many  years,  except  to 
improve  their  beauty  for  exhibition. 

14.  History. — French  writers  state  that  the  La  Fleche 
has  been  known  as  a  separate  breed  for  more  than  500  years, 
and  it  is  thought  that  it  has  existed  for  even  a  longer  time. 
Modem  writers  credit  its  origin  to  the  crosses  of  black  Spanish 
and  Polish  fowls  that  were  bred  in  the  La  Fleche  district  of 
France.  They  had  V-shaped  combs  and  stately  carriage,  and 
for  a  time  had  small  crests  and  the  peculiar  skull  formation  of 
the  Polish.  .  La  Fleche  fowls  were  brought  to  England  at  about 
the  same  time  as  the  Houdans,  and  were  bred  to  Standard 
requirements.  Those  that  were  first  brought  to  America  had 
small  crests,  and  but  little  has  been  done  for  their  improvement 
since  that  time. 

15.  Description. —  In  writing  of  the  La  Fleche  fowls, 
Lewis  Wright  states  that  in  general  appearance  they  were  more 
like  the  Spanish  of  that  time  than  they  were  like  any  other 
fowl.  Although  they  were  not  as  tall  as  the  Spanish,  they 
were  larger,  often  weighing  from  8  to  10  pounds.  The  La 
Fleche  fowls  of  the  present  have  the  carriage  of  the  Minorca, 
and  are  larger  in  body  but  not  as  long  as  the  Minorca.  The 
American  Standard  requires  the  hen  to  have  less  weight  than 
the  Minorca,  but  the  fowls  are  frequently  bred  to  a  weight  3  or 
4  pounds  heavier  than  the  Standard  requires.  The  peculiarity 
of  fowls  of  this  breed  is  their  Y-shaped  comb,  white  ear  lobes, 
stately  carriage,  large  size,  black  shanks,  white  skin,  and  rich, 


434  FRENCH,  POLISH,  AND  §9 

glossy  black  plumage.  They  lay  large  white-shelled  eggs. 
The  American  Standard  describes  them  as  fowls  of  medium 
size,  having  long,  powerful  shanks,  and  full,  prominent  breasts. 
The  standard  weights  are:  Cocks,  8^  pounds;  cockerels  and 
hens,  7|  pounds;  pullets,  6^  pounds.  Although  the  La  Fleche 
fowls  are  of  attractive  appearance,  they  have  never  been 
popular  in  America. 

16.  Mating. — So  little  is  known  of  the  La  Fleche  breed 
and  so  little  has  been  done  in  respect  to  exhibition  qualities  as 
to  make  it  almost  impossible  to  describe  the  fowls  best  suited 
for  matings.  All  that  can  be  done  is  to  select  some  of  the  best 
fowls  that  can  be  secured  in  England,  mate  and  remate  their 
offspring,  and  select  the  best  to  conform  to  size,  shape,  and  color 
of  the  breed.  The  difficulties  are  the  tendencies  to  colds,  to 
which  these  fowls  are  subject  when  exposed  to  dampness.  In 
localities  where  .the  weather  is  changeable,  trouble  is  experi- 
enced in  growing  crested  fowls,  and  the  La  Fleche  fowls  seem 
to  be  troubled  in  the  same  way. 


LA  BRESSE 

17.  France  has  paid  more  attention  than  any  other  country 
to  the  improvement  of  fowls  for  egg  production  and  table 
poultry.  In  referring  to  this,  in  his  Book  of  Poultry,  Lewis 
Wright,  of  England,  wrote:  "Among  the  varieties  of  French 
fowls,  the  La  Bresse  fowls  occupy  the  premier  position  in 
respect  to  table  quaUty,  if  the  prices  obtained  for  the  best 
fowls  may  be  taken  as  evidence.  The  district  where  these 
fowls  are  bred  comprises  part  of  the  department  of  Ain  and 
Seine-et-Oise  that  is  to  the  south  of  the  old  province  of  Bur- 
gundy, and  in  that  district  the  poultry  industry  is  a  very 
important  branch  of  agriculture." 

18.  Origin. — ^When  and  how  the  La  Bresse  originated 
has  never  been  determined,  but  the  fowls  are  undoubtedly  of 
Italian  origin.  French  writers  differ  on  this  subject,  some 
claiming  that  they  have  come  from  the  intermingling  of 
Andalusian  and  French  fowls;  others  believe  that  they  were 


§  9  MISCELLANEOUS  FOWLS  435 

the  natural  result  of  an  interchange  of  fowls  from  Italy  with 
France.  As  they  now  exist  in  Southern  France,  they  resemble 
the  Leghorn  fowls. 

19.  Development. — The  development  of  the  La  Bresse 
breed  has  been  only  such  as  would  follow  careful  breeding  to 
improve  the  fowls  as  egg  producers  and  for  market. 

20.  History. — As  mentioned,  much  of  the  poultry  of 
France  is  named  for  the  locality  from  which  it  comes.  The 
southern  districts  of  France  have  been  noted  for  more  than 
100  years  for  the  production  of  poulards,  capons,  and  market 
poiiltry  of  remarkable  quality  known  by  the  name  of  La  Bresse. 
Although  this  breed  has  existed  in  that  locality  for  a  long  time, 
the  fowls  have  been  but  little  distributed  in  other  parts  of  the 
world. 

21.  Description. — The  La  Bresse  are  bred  in  numerous 
varieties — the  Black,  the  Blue,  the  Gray,  and  the  White 
Bresse  being  the  only  varieties  that  are  mentioned  as  being 
separate.  They  are  fowls  of  medium  size,  in  form  like  the 
utility  Leghorn,  but  more  prominent  in  breast  and  body. 
They  weigh  from  4|  to  7  pounds,  according  to  their  age  and 
sex.  The  color  of  the  skin  and  flesh  is  the  beautiful  pinkish 
white  so  much  admired  in  France.  The  shanks  and  feet  are 
of  a  bluish  tint;  the  eggs  have  bluish- white  shells.  They  have 
single  combs,  and  white  ear  lobes  that  are  frequently  mixed 
with  red. 

The  Gray  Bresse  is  mentioned  as  the  original  variety.  There 
seems  to  be  no  proof  of  this,  but  such  is  the  accepted  theory. 
In  this  variety,  the  color  is  mostly  white,  with  dark  or  gray 
markings;  the  ear  lobes  are  white.  The  pure  white  variety  is 
thought  to  have  been  bred  by  selecting  the  whitest  fowls  of 
the  gray  variety.  The  black  and  the  blue  varieties  seem  to 
be  bred  more  for  egg  production,  and  the  white  and  the  gray 
varieties  for  market  poultry. 

22.  Mating. — No  attention  has  been  bestowed  on  breed- 
ing La  Bresse  fowls  for  exhibition  purposes.  The  only  rule  of 
mating  that  has  been  followed  has  been  to  select  the  best  of 


436  FRENCH,  POLISH,  AND  §9 

an  accepted  type  that  produced  offspring  that  laid  well  and 
matured  into  the  most  desirable  market  poultry.  In  France, 
this  would  be  a  fowl  having  length,  breadth,  and  depth  of 
body,  with  an  abundance  of  breast  meat.  This  would  neces- 
sitate width  between  the  thighs  and  breadth  of  back.  Such 
fowls  can  be  readily  fattened,  and  will  fill  out  well  in  the  back — 
a  feature  highly  considered  in  France. 


BOURBOURG,   OR  BOURBOREY 

23.  Origin. — The  Bourbourg,  or  Bourborey,  breed  of 
fowls  has  evidently  been  made  by  crossing  Light  Brahma  fowls 
with  fowls  of  other  breeds,  with  the  object  of  producing  a 
better  fowl  for  market.  The  claim  has  been  made  that  the 
Bourbourg  fowls  are  part  Malines.  Both  the  Malines  and 
the  Bourbourg  fowls  show  the  influence  of  Asiatic  blood. 

24.  Development. — The  Bourbourg  fowls  were  orig- 
inated and  developed  for  the  piu-pose  of  having  a  fowl  of 
desirable  proportions  for  market.  As  they  are  used  to  a 
considerable  extent  for  capons,  a  round,  plump  body  for- 
mation, with  the  greatest  length  of  keel,  or  breastbone,  has 
been  sought. 

25.  History. — The  Botirbourg  fowls  are  natives  of  that 
part  of  France  lying  near  the  border  of  Belgium.  The  Belgian 
fanciers  have  become  so  proficient  in  the  growing  of  poultry 
as  to  have  sorely  pressed  the  people  of  France  for  supremacy. 
Naturally,  under  such  conditions,  and  where  so  much  atten- 
tion is  given  to  the  production  of  market  poultry  as  is  devoted 
to  this  line  of  agriculture  in  both  Belgiimi  and  France,  every 
effort  woiild  be  madfe  to  excel;  the  result  of  this  has  been  a 
great  improvement  of  all  the  poultry  of  those  countries. 

26.  Description. — The  Bourbourg  fowls  resemble  the 
Coltimbian  Plymouth  Rocks  in  many  ways — ^in  size,  or  weight, 
they  are  about  the  same,  also  in  plumage  color.  The  color  of 
their  skin  is  white,  and  their  shanks  and  feet  are  pinkish  white 
and  sparingly  feathered.     The  shells  of  their  eggs  are  tinted. 


^•^ 


§  9  MISCELLANEOUS  FOWLS  437 

27.  Mating. — The  Bourbourg  fowls  have  never  been  bred 
for  exhibition.  For  this  reason,  plumage  color  is  not  well 
defined.  In  mating  for  the  purposes  intended,  perfect  body 
formation  is  the  one  requirement  for  success.  If  bred  for  exhi- 
bition, type  must  be  well  defined  in  the  fowls  used,  and  the 
same  methods  should  be  applied  as  are  necessary  for  producing 
plumage  color  in  Light  Brahma  fowls. 


FAVEROLLE 


ORIGIN,    DEVELOPMENT,    HISTORY,    DESCRIPTION, 
AND   MATING 

28.  Origin. — The  Faverolle  fowls  originated  in  the 
northern  part  of  France,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  place 
called  Faverolle.  They  are  said  to  have  been  created  to 
improve  or  increase  the  egg  production  in  that  locality. 
Brahma,  Cochin,  Dorking,  Hamburg,  and  perhaps  Malines 
fowls  were  made  use  of  in  some  of  the  crosses.  The  pecu- 
liarity of  fowls  of  this  breed  is  that  those  containing  Light 
Brahma  blood  have  the  plinnage  color  of  that  variety;  those 
largely  Dorking,  favor  the  Dorking  color;  and  the  same  is  true 
of  those  of  the  Cochin,  the  Cuckoo,  or  the  Malines  crosses. 

29.  Development. — The  Faverolle  fowls  were  developed 
in  France  for  egg  production  and  for  market.  As  the  result  of 
development,  they  lay  large,  tinted-shelled  eggs,  and  the  car- 
cass, for  all  market  purposes,  can  scarcely  be  excelled.  They 
have  been  adopted  by  the  fanciers  of  England  for  exhibition 
purposes,  and  are  described  as  such  in  the  English  Standard. 
They  are  but  sparingly  bred  in  America. 

30.  History. — To  meet  the  demands  for  large  size  in 
market  poultry,  the  poultrymen  of  France  crossed  Cochin, 
Brahma,  and  Dorking  fowls  into  the  common  fowls  of  the  land. 
From  these  crosses,  the  offspring  most  likely  to  prove  satisfac- 
tory as  market  poultry  were  selected.  The  characters  of  the 
Dorking,  the  Cochin,  and  the  Brahma  were  most  favorably 


438  FRENCH,  POLISH,  AND  §9 

considered,  and  from  among  these  four  varieties  were  selected — 
the  Cuckoo  Faverolle,  the  Dorking  FaveroUe,  the  Saumon,  or 
Salmon,  Faverolle,  and  the  Light,  or  Brahma,  Faverolle.  The 
Salmon  Faverolle  has  become  the  most  popular  variety. 

31.  Description. — The  type  of  the  Faverolle  can  best  be 
imderstood  after  a  study  of  the  color  illustration  of  these  fowls. 
The  English  Standard  describes  one  variety  that  is  commonly 
known  as  the  Salmon  Faverolle,  the  color  of  which  is:  Beak, 
horn  color  or  white;  eyes,  gray  or  hazel;  comb,  face,  wattles, 
and  ear  lobes,  red;  shanks  and  feet,  white;  pltimage  of  the  males, 
beard  and  muff,  black;  hackle,  straw  color;  back  and  shoulders, 
a  mixture  of  black,  white,  and  brown;  breast,  body,  tail,  and 
shank  feathering,  black;  secondaries,  white  on  the  outer  edge 
of  the  feathers  and  black  on  the  inner  edge;  primaries,  black. 
In  the  female,  the  beard  and  muff,  breast,  thighs,  and  fluff 
are  cream  color ;  the  rest  of  the  plumage  is  wheaten  brown,  and 
the  neck  hackle  is  striped  with  a  darker  shade  of  the  same  color. 
So  far  but  few  of  these  fowls  have  color  so  nearly  perfect  as  the 
Standard  describes.  The  general  color  of  the  males  of  this 
variety  is  like  that  of  the  Dorking  male.  The  female  is  a  mix- 
ture of  yellow  or  cream  and  salmon  color. 

A  number  of  varieties  are  mentioned  as  existing  in  France. 
Of  these,  there  is  a  variety  that  is  said  to  be  entirely,  or  almost 
entirely,  black  in  plumage.  The  light  variety  copies  in  a  mod- 
erate way  the  color  and  markings  of  the  Light  Brahma.  The 
Cuckoo  Faverolle  is  mentioned  as  a  variety  having  plumage 
color  resembling  the  markings  of  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rock. 
Presumably,  from  its  color  description  and  photographs,  the 
Cuckoo  Faverolle  and  the  Malines  of  the  same  color  are  alike. 
The  weights  are  as  follows:  Cocks,  7  to  8|  pounds;  cockerels 
and  hens,  6  to  7  pounds ;  piillets,  5  to  6  poimds. 

32.  Mating. — In  describing  Faverolle  fowls  suitable  for 
mating,  an  English  fancier,  who  has  been  successful  with  them 
as  exhibition  fowls,  advises  the  selection  of  fowls  of  both  sexes 
that  have  perfect  single  combs  of  meditim  size  and  evenly  ser- 
rated.    Fowls  of  this  breed  inherit  faulty  combs  from  their 

.  ancestors,  and  to  avoid  the  recurrence  of  this  blemish  in  the  off- 


§  9  MISCELLANEOUS  FOWLS  439 

spring  requires  careful  breeding.  The  second  feature  of  impor- 
tance is  beard  and  muff.  These  must  be  almost  perfect,  or  the 
fowls  will  have  a  ragged  appearance  about  the  head.  Other- 
wise, form  and  color  as  described  in  the  Standard  should  be 
selected  as  nearly  as  can  be,  and  these  mated ;  the  best  offspring 
should  then  be  selected  and  remated  with  the  object  of  estab- 
lishing a  strain  that  will  breed  true  to  form  and  color.  The 
color  most  admired  in  the  females  is  what  game  fanciers  call 
wheaten  color,  with  the  exception  that  in  the  FaveroUe  it  is 
called  wheaten  brown.  An  effort  is  being  made  to  have  the 
plumage  color  of  the  males  resemble  that  of  the  Silver  Duck- 
wing  males,  and  the  females  resemble  the  Wheaten  Game 
females,  as  nearly  as  possible. 


WHITE    FAVEROLLE 

33.  Origin  and  Development. — The  White  Faverolle 

fowls  are  thought  to  have  come  originally  as  sports  from  the 
other  varieties  of  Faverolle  fowls,  presumably  from  the  Light 
Faverolle.  They  have  been  developed  since  1907  by  the  poul- 
trymen  of  England,  who  have  given  marked  attention  since 
that  time  to  their  improvement. 

34.  History. — Some  Faverolle  fowls  produced  offspring 
that  were  white  or  almost  white  in  plumage  color.  Some  of 
these  white  offspring  were  selected  and  mated  about  1905  for 
the  production  of  the  White  Faverolle.  As  a  result  of  breed- 
ing from  these  carefully  selected  fowls  some  fairly  good  white 
fowls  were  produced.  Some  of  these  were  mated  with  the  best 
of  the  Light  Faverolle,  others  with  the  best  of  the  Salmon 
Faverolle.  From  these  matings  offspring  were  produced  that 
had  the  proper  size  and  shape  and  white  plumage  color,  and 
from  them  the  distinctive  breed  characters  of  the  Faverolle 
were  well  established  in  later  offspring.  The  excellence  of  the 
Faverolle  quality  in  the  White  Faverolle  is  shown  in  Fig.  1. 

35.  Description. — ^White  Faverolle  fowls  are  the  same  in 
form  as  the  other  varieties  of  the  same  breed.  They,  like  the 
old  or  original  Salmon  Faverolle  fowls,  are  very  short  in  leg, 


440 


FRENCH,  POLISH,  AND 


§9 


heavy  in  body  formation,  and  have  very  large  muffs  about  the 
throat.  They  are  more  like  the  Dorking  than  the  Orpington 
type,  although,  in  form,  they  are  different  from  any  of  the 
American  or  English  fowls.     They  are  very  long  in  body,  deep 

and  full  in  breast,  have 
a  long  breastbone,  and 
are  wide  between  the 
thighs.  Their  plu- 
mage is  pure  white. 
The  skin,  flesh,  shanks, 
and  toes  are  of  a  deli- 
cate pinkish  white. 

36.     Mating. — In 

mating  White  Faver- 
olle  fowls  for  the  pro- 
duction of  exhibition 
offspring,  males  and 
females  that  have  pure 
white  plumage  and 
the  very  best  Faver- 
olle  breed  characters 
should  be  selected. 
Fig.  1  It  will  be  possible  to 

make  more  rapid  advancement  in  the  development  of  a  strain 
of  this  variety  if  yearling  hens  instead  of  pullets  are  selected 
for  mating  with  well-grown  cockerels.  In  this  variety,  only  the 
best  that  have  been  bred  should  be  selected  for  breeding;  by 
consistently  following  this  policy  year  after  year  great  improve- 
ment may  be  made  in  these  fowls. 


§  9  MISCELLANEOUS  FOWLS  441 


POLISH 


ORIGIN 


37.  Fowls  with  tufts  of  feathers  on  the  top  of  their  heads 
and  a  growth  of  feathers  beneath  their  beaks  have  been  men- 
tioned for  centimes.  NaturaHsts  refer  to  a  crested  fowl  that 
was  mentioned  and  illustrated  by  Aldrovandi  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury. This  was  a  large  fowl  having  a  crest  that  was  fan-shaped 
and  fiat,  not  oval  or  round  as  at  the  present  time.  These  were 
called  Paduan  or  Patavinian  fowls.  Moubray  said  of  them  in 
1816:  "The  Poland  fowls,  as  they  are  generally  called,  were 
imported  chiefly  from  Holland.  Their  color  was  shining 
black,  with  white  tops  on  the  heads  of  both  cocks  and  hens. 
Their  forai  is  plump  and  deep,  and  the  legs  of  the  best 
species  are  not  too  long.  Perhaps  the  genuine  sort  has 
always  had  five  claws  and,  as  the  Poland  cocks  will  occasion- 
ally produce  white  stock  from  white  English  hens,  it  is  not 
improbable,  the  similarity  of  form  likewise  considered,  that 
our  famous  Dorking  breed  may  have  been  originally  raised 
from  that  cross." 

There  is  no  doubt  that  the  original  tufted  Hamburg  fowls 
and  the  fowls  mentioned  by  Dixon  and  others  as  having  crests, 
all  belonged  to  the  same  family.  Polish  fowls  have  always 
been  more  commonly  bred  in  France  than  elsewhere.  They 
were  made  use  of  in  crosses  from  which  the  crested  fowls  of 
France  originated.  That  they  were  bred  in  Spain  at  an  early 
day  and  distributed  from  there  into  other  countries  is  now 
admitted.  In  France,  they  have  been  cultivated  for  utility 
pttrposes;  in  England  and  in  America,  only  as  exhibition  fowls. 
The  earUest  record  of  them  calls  attention  to  the  peculiar 
skiill  formation,  which  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  2.  The  drawing 
was  made  from  a  dissected  head.  There  has  been  but  little 
change  in  the  skull  formation  during  the  past  60  years.     The 


442  FRENCH,  POLISH,  AND  §  9 

skull  formation  shown  was  accepted  as  evidence  of  the  exist- 
ence of  a  crested  jungle  fowl. 

Early  authorities  have  mentioned  ten  varieties  of  Polish 

fowls:     White-Crested  Black;  Golden,  bearded  and  unbearded; 

Silver,   bearded  and  unbearded;   Cuckoo,  bearded;   Gray  or 

Grizzled,  bearded;  Black-and- White  Spangled,  unbearded;  Blue, 

^*^p^  with  white  top  knots, 

^^^^,^\  unbearded;    Yellow 

■     /^^^^^^^^^i  Black-Breasted  Black, 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^p?  but  eight  varieties  are 
W  ^^°°°°°°°°^^^^^F^  recognized:    White- 

^^^•2  Crested    Black,    Buff 

Laced,  Bearded  Golden,  Non-Bearded  Golden,  Bearded  Silver, 
Non-Bearded  Silver,  Bearded  White,  Non-Bearded  White. 

In  England,  the  White-Crested  Blue  Polish  is  included  in  the 
Standard.  Originally  Polish  fowls  had  Y-shaped,  or  antler, 
combs  the  same  as  the  Crevecoeur  and  La  Fleche,  but  from 
careftd  breeding  and  perhaps  from  the  influence  of  the  feathers 
growing  entirely  over  the  head,  many  specimens  have  no 
combs,  or  combs  so  small  as  to  be  almost  imperceptible  among 
the  feathers.  

WHITE-CRESTED  BLACK  POLISH 

38.  Origin. — All  Polish  fowls  have  a  common  origin, 
which  has  been  told.     The  Wliite- Crested  Black  Pollsli 

was  originally  more  common  than  any  of  the  other  varieties. 
As  described  and  illustrated  in  early  publications,  they  had 
but  Httle  crest.  Those  with  beards  might  be  described  as 
having  a  few  feathers  growing  the  wrong  way  beneath  the 
beak.  As  they  now  are,  they  were  originated  by  poultry 
fanciers  of  America  and  England. 

39.  Development. — The  recent  development  in  the 
White-Crested  Black  Polish  began  "about  1880,  at  which  time 


§  9  MISCELLANEOUS  FOWLS  443 

fully  one-fifth  of  the  crest  was  composed  of  black  feathers  and 
most  of  them  grew  in  front.  Since  that  time,  improvement 
has  been  made  in  form  and  pltmiage  color,  and  their  crests  are 
more  than  twice  the  former  size. 

40.  History. — Crested  fowls  were  plentiftd  at  an  early- 
date  throughout  all  sections  of  the  world  where  poultry  was 
raised.  At  that  time,  the  fowls  were  not  pure  black  in  body 
plumage,  nor  were  their  crests  large  or  entirely  white.  The 
English  fanciers  were  the  first  to  cultivate  them  as  exhibition 
fowls.  Later,  marked  interest  in  their  improvement  was 
shown  in  America,  and  between  1880  and  1890  many  of  them 
were  bred  in  the  United  States.  Of  recent  years  fewer  of  them 
have  been  bred,  but  the  quality  has  been  improved. 

41.  Description. — The  Standard  describes  aU  Polish 
fowls  as  having  the  same  body  formation,  yet  they  do  not  all 
conform  to  the  one  shape  description.  The  Standard  describes 
them  as  fowls  of  meditim  size,  having  an  upright  carriage  and 
resembling  the  Spangled  Hamburg  more  than  any  other  fowl. 
In  breast  and  body  formation,  including  the  abdomen,  they 
are  plttmp,  as  well  as  fiill  and  well  rounded.  Their  peculiar- 
ities are  the  crest  and  beard,  which  should  be  large,  fiill,  and  of 
globular  formation.  The  carriage  of  the  head  and  tail  is  shown 
in  the  color  illustration.  The  difference  in  the  appearance  of 
the  varieties  is  governed  largely  by  the  size  of  the  crest  and 
beard,  or  of  the  crest  alone  in  the  non-bearded  varieties. 

The  plimiage  of  the  White-Crested  Black  Polish  is  rich 
metallic  black  throughout,  with  no  white  or  foreign  color  of 
any  kind,  except  in  the  crest,  which  is  pure  white  with  a  few 
black  feathers  bordering  the  front.  The  shanks  and  toes  are 
dark  blue  or  almost  black;  the  comb,  face,  and  wattles  are  red. 
In  the  English  Standard,  the  eyes  are  described  as  red;  in  the 
American  Standard,  as  brown  or  black.  The  ear  lobes  are 
white  and  the  beaks  dark. 

42.  Mating. — The  best  results  in  breeding  White-Crested 
Black  Polish  fowls  have  been  obtained  from  mating  the 
most  perfect  individuals  and  selecting  and  remating  the  best 
offspring  for  the  estabhshment  of  a  strain  that  will  produce 


444  FRENCH,  POLISH,  AND  §9 

offspring  having  Polish  breed  characters,  black  body  plumage, 
and  large  white  crests  of  perfect  formation,  with  as  little  black 
as  possible  about  the  edges.  The  chief  difficulty  in  breeding 
fowls  of  this  variety  is  to  separate  and  hold  the  white  in  the 
crest  without  any  of  it  appearing  in  the  flights  or  in  any  part 
of  the  body  plumage.  In  addition  to  this,  records  must  be 
kept  of  both  parents  of  all  offspring  so  as  to  separate  and  mate 
them  to  avoid  inbreeding  as  far  as  possible. 

In  caring  for  fowls  of  this  breed,  special  attention  must  be 
given  to  protect  them  from  cold,  dampness,  and  rain.  If  the 
crests  become  water-soaked,  the  fowls  are  apt  to  take  cold, 
imless  the  crest  is  dried  or  the  fowls  are  kept  in  warm  quarters. 
During  the  breeding  season,  the  crests  may  be  trimmed  about 
the  eyes  or  clipped  to  within  an  inch  of  the  head.  A  split 
crest  is  most  undesirable.  This  may  be  corrected  by  binding 
up  the  crest  and  leaving  it  bound  during  the  breeding  season. 
It  is  best  not  to  use  for  breeding  purposes  fowls  that  have  split 
crests.  If,  however,  they  have  other  desirable  qualities,  the 
fault  may  be  corrected.  When  the  crest  is  boimd  up  in  this 
way,  it  should  be  opened  at  least  every  3  or  4  weeks  and  thor- 
oughly cleansed  by  washing;  it  should  then  be  dried  and 
bound  up  again.  This  is  to  prevent  filth  from  gathering  and 
irritating  the  head,  and  also  to  soften  the  skin  and  flesh  of  the 
head  and  influence  the  next  growth  of  feathers. 


BUFF  LACED  POLISH 

43.  The  differences  in  description  in  the  English  and 
American  Standards  are  greater  in  the  case  of  the  Buff  Laced 
Polish  than  in  the  case  of  the  other  Polish  varieties.  In  the 
American  Standard  they  are  called  Buff  Laced  Polish,  and  in 
the  Enghsh  Standard,  the  Chamois,  or  White  Laced,  Polish. 
They  are  really  buff-colored  fowls  with  white  markings.  In 
some  instances  they  are  buff,  marked  with  white  in  body  plu- 
mage, and  have  white  predominating  in  the  tail  feathers.  The 
body  color  is  very  light  in  females  and  almost  a  cinnamon  buff 
in  males.  Formerly,  many  of  the  females  were  of  a  light  lemon 
color,  with  the  body  color  and  lacing  so  similar  as  to  be  scarcely 


§  9  MISCELLANEOUS  FOWLS  445 

distingmshable.     Some  were  buff  and  white  spangled  or  mot- 
tled more  like  the  Ancona  than  the  present  Buff  Laced  Polish. 

44.  Origin. — The  Btiff  Laced  Polish  fowls  are  thought  to 
have  been  originated  by  crossing  the  golden  with  the  white 
Polish.  Early  writers  mention  a  buff  Polish.  Dixon  refers 
to  the  muff  or  beard  as  an  early  appendage  mentioned  by 
Albin  in  1736  as  whiskers;  he  describes  it  as  a  tuft  of  feathers 
that  covers  the  ears.  Naturally  there  would  be  buff  Polish 
where  the  golden  Polish  existed,  but  the  present  Buff  Laced 
Polish  fowls  are  extremely  artificial  and  have  been  made  by 
fanciers  who  worked  to  make  them  beautiful. 

45.  Developmento — The  Buff  Laced  Polish  fowls  have 
been  developed  from  the  badly  marked  buff  and  white  varieties 
of  early  days,  step  by  step  through  a  period  of  buff  and  span- 
gled plumage,  to  buff  plumage  tipped  with  white. 

46.  Description. — In  body  formation  and  shape  of  crest, 
the  Buff  Laced  Polish  is  the  same  as  the  other  varieties  of  Polish 
fowls.  The  general  make-up  and  plumage  color  of  this  variety 
is  shown  by  the  color  illustration  of  Bufi  Polish  Bantam  fowls. 
In  the  males,  the  under  portion  of  the  feathers  of  the  crest  is 
white,  and  the  web  is  buff,  laced  with  white.  The  rest  of  the 
plimiage  of  both  males  and  females  is  buff,  laced  with  white. 

47.  Mating. — The  mating  of  Buff  Laced  Polish  fowls  for 
best  results  is  a  difficult  task.  The  males  naturally  have  a 
darker  shade  of  buff  than  the  females.  As  the  result  of  careful 
selecting  and  mating,,  a  few  males  and  females  of  nearly  the 
same  shade  of  color  have  been  produced.  Fowls  as  nearly 
alike  as  possible  should  be  chosen  for  mating ;  when  it  is  impos- 
sible to  get  fowls  nearly  alike,  the  best  that  can  be  selected  for 
shape,  crest,  and  plumage  color  should  be  mated,  and  their 
offspring  remated  continuously  in  an  effort  to  improve  plumage 
color. 


446  FRENCH,  POLISH,  AND  §9 


BEAHDED  GOLDEN  POLISH 

48.  The  variety  called  Bearded  Golden  Polish,  by  the 

American  Standard  is  known  by  several  names;  the  English 
Standard  calls  it  the  Gold  Polish;  and  some  writers  caU  it 
Spangled  Polish.  On  account  of  the  marking  of  the  plumage, 
it  might  appropriately  be  called  Laced  Polish.  All  of  these 
refer  to  the  variety  of  PoHsh  that  has  markings  such  as  are 
shown  in  the  color  illustration  of  the  Bearded  Polish. 

49.  Origin  and  Development. — Originally,  the  Bearded 
Golden  Polish  were  spangled.  As  they  now  exist,  they  are 
thought  to  have  had  a  common  origin  with  the  Spangled  Ham- 
burg; that  is,  the  same  process  was  followed  in  making  the 
present  Spangled  Polish  and  the  Spangled  Hamburg.  All 
Polish  fowls  had  the  one  common  origin  as  previously  described. 
The  Bearded  Golden  PoHsh  described  in  the  American  Standard 
has  been  made  from  the  crude  originals,  which  had  a  few 
feathers,  called  a  topknot,  growing  on  top  of  the  head,  and  a 
few  feathers  called  whiskers  growing  under  the  throat.  As  a 
result  of  careful  selection,  mating,  and  breeding,  fowls  such  as 
are  shown  in  the  color  illustrations  of  the  Bearded  Polish  have 
been  produced. 

50.  History. — From  the  beginning  of  poultry  exhibitions, 
Polish  fowls  have  attracted  attention  throughout  the  world. 
The  Spangled  Polish  has  always  been  an  attractive  variety. 
The  golden  variety  is  thought  to  be  the  original,  and  the  silver 
variety  is  supposed  to  have  been  made  from  it.  Evidence  that 
seems  to  favor  this  is  that  fowls  of  the  silver  variety  have  been 
bred  from  the  golden  variety,  but  fowls  of  the  golden  variety 
have  never  been  bred  from  the  silver  variety.  The  silver 
variety  is  far  more  popular  and  more  generally  bred  than  the 
golden  variety,  and  since  .buff  varieties  of  other  fowls  have 
become  popidar,  the  buff  variety  of  Polish  has  also  become 
more  popular  than  the  golden  variety.  The  best  of  the  Bearded 
Golden  PoUsh  have  been  bred  in  England  and  Canada,  but  in 
recent  years  some  good  ones  have  been  produced  in  the  United 
States. 


§  9  MISCELLANEOUS  FOWLS  447 

51.  Description. — The  Bearded  Golden  Polish  has  a 
crest  of  large  size  and  but  little  comb.  The  crest  of  a  fowl  of 
the  bearded  varieties  is  usually  larger  than  that  of  the  non- 
bearded  varieties.  The  beard,  which  grows  beneath  the  beak, 
is  separated  into  three  parts,  one  part  hanging  down  between 
the  wattles,  and  the  other  parts  growing  from  the  cheek  below 
the  eyes  on  to  the  side  of  the  neck.  The  hackle  in  the  male  is 
long  and  flowing,  and  in  the  female  appears  to  be  more  a  part 
of  the  body  plimiage  than  a  separate  division.  The  saddle 
plimiage  in  males  is  long  and  flowing ;  the  tail  is  very  full ;  the 
main  tail  feathers  are  well  spread;  the  main  sickles  extend 
beyond  the  main  tail  feathers;  the  covert  and  saddle  feather- 
ing is  profuse.  In  the  females,  the  tail  is  weU  spread  and  is 
surrounded  at  the  base  with  double  rows  of  coverts.  The 
breast  and  body  are  round  and  full.  These  fowls  should  be 
wide  between  the  thighs  and  have  a  medium  length  of  shanks. 

The  plumage  of  both  males  and  females  is  golden  bay  through- 
out, each  feather  laced  with  brilliant  black;  the  under  plumage 
is  dark  or  black.  The  crest  of  the  male  is  black  in  imder  plu- 
mage and  golden  bay  in  stu-face  color,  tipped  with  black.  The 
crest  of  the  female  is  like  her  body  plimiage.  The  hackle  of 
the  male  is  tipped  or  striped  at  the  ends  with  black.  The 
muff  of  cockerels  is  usually  dark,  approaching  black,  but  show- 
ing more  of  the  golden  color  as  mature  cocks.  The  markings 
of  the  wings  form  a  double  bar  and  a  wing  bay  in  both  males 
and  females.  The  shanks  and  toes  are  dark  blue;  the  eyes  are 
dark.  The  plumage  color  of  this  variety  is  more  in  conform- 
ity with  that  of  the  Laced  Wyandotte  than  of  any  other  fowl. 

52.  Mating. — The  rule  of  mating  to  be  followed  to  pro- 
duce Bearded  Golden  Polish  exhibition  offspring  is  that  like 
will  produce  like,  or  that  the  best  offspring  will  come  from  fowls 
that  are  almost  perfect  according  to  Standard  description.  The 
rules  for  mating  Bearded  Silver  Polish  will  apply  to  this  variety, 
color  excepted. 


448  FRENCH,  POLISH,  AND  §  9 


NON-BEARDED  GOLDEN  POLISH 

53.  Whether  the  Bearded  or  the  Non-Bearded  Polish  have 
the  priority  claim  of  originality  cannot  be  settled.  If  the 
Paduan  fowl  of  Aldrovandi  is  the  ancestor  of  all  Polish,  not 
only  was  the  original  fowl  without  muff  or  beard,  but  it  had 
a  fan  or  lark  crest  (a  narrow  strip  of  feathers  that  grew  on 
the  top  of  the  head  like  a  single  comb) ,  as  shown  in  Aldrovandi's 
original  picture  of  the  Paduan  hen,  which  is  given  in  Fig.  3. 

Game  fowls  having  beards  were  illustrated  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury. Some  having  a  small  tuft  of  feathers  on  the  top  of  the 
head  back  of  the  comb  were  illustrated  at 
about  the  same  time.  The  term  muf  has 
been  used  for  a  certain  breed  of  game  fowls 
of  an  early  day.  That  fowls  with  crests  and 
no  beards,  fowls  with  beards  and  no  crests, 
and  fowls  having  both  beards  and  crests 
have  been  known  for  centuries  is  an  estab- 
lished fact ;  yet,  in  the  absence  of  proof  other 
than  the  knowledge  of  the  early  existence 
of  the  Paduan  fowl,  it  is  fair  to  conclude 
Fig.  3  that  they  might  have  existed  originally  with 

both  or  with  one,  and  yet  may  have  belonged  to  what  might  be 
called  the  Paduan  family. 

54.  The  Non-Bearded  Golden  Polish,  fowls  are  the 
same  in  every  way  as  the  Bearded  Golden  Polish,  except  that 
they  have  no  beards  or  extra  growth  of  feathers  of  any  kind 
under  the  throat;  the  absence  of  this  gives  them  as  trim  an 
appearance  as  is  shown  in  the  White-Crested  Black  Polish. 
Their  origin  and  development  are  the  same,  and  to  produce 
form  and  color,  they  may  be  mated  the  same  as  the  Bearded 
Polish.  They  have  not  been  bred  in  such  large  numbers, 
nor  are  they  equal  favorites  with  the  Bearded  Polish. 


MISCELLANEOUS  FOWLS  449 


BEARDED  AND  NON-BEARDED  SILVER  POLISH 


BEARDED    SILVER    POLISH 

55.  Origin. — The  Bearded  Silver  Polish  variety  has 
the  same  origin  as  other  varieties  of  the  Polish  family.  The 
color  of  these  fowls  has  been  established  by  years  of  careful 
breeding. 

56.  Development. — Careful  breeding  has  developed  the 
Bearded  Silver  Polish  into  the  type  of  fowl  shown  in  the  color 
illustration. 

57.  History. — The  history  of  the  Bearded  Silver  Polish 
variety  is  identical  with  that  of  the  Bearded  Golden  Polish 
variety. 

58.  Description. — The  shape  of  fowls  of  the  Bearded 
Silver  Polish  variety  is  shown  in  the  color  illustration,  and  their 
general  make-up  as  to  crest,  beard,  and  body  formation  is 
identical  with  that  of  the  Bearded  Golden  Polish;  but  in  color 
they  differ  materially.  The  body  color  of  this  variety  is  white 
or  silvery  white;  the  under  plumage  is  dark  or  slate.  The 
crest  of  the  male  is  black  at  the  base,  or  in  under  pltimage, 
and  silvery  white  in  the  web,  which  is  tipped  or  spangled 
with  black  at  the  points.  In  the  finest  males,  the  crest  feathers 
are  laced  with  black.  The  hackle  of  the  male  is  silvery  white, 
laced  with  black.  The  entire  body  color  of  the  males  and 
females  is  white,  as  in  the  Silver  Sebright,  and  is  marked  with 
Sebright  lacing  of  black.  The  main  tail  feathers  are  white, 
laced  with  black;  the  wing  bow,  wing  bar,  wing  bay,  flights, 
and  secondaries  are  white,  tipped  or  laced  with  black;  the 
females  have  a  double  row  of  tail  coverts  with  large  white 
centers  laced  with  black;  the  saddle  plumage  of  the  male, 
including  the  tail  coverts  and  sickle  feathers,  are  long  and 
flowing,  and  are  white,  edged  with  black.  The  shanks  and 
toes  are  blue  or  slaty  blue. 

In  the  cockerels  and  pullets,  the  beard  and  crest  are  darker 
than  in  mature  fowls.     The  crest,  in  both  males  and  females, 


450  FRENCH,  POLISH,  AND.  §  9 

should  be  perfect  in  formation,  without  breaks  or  separations 
of  any  kind.  The  center  coloring  and  lacing  of  both  the 
Bearded  Golden  and  the  Bearded  Silver  Polish  are  more  like 
the  plumage  of  the  Silver  and  Golden  Sebrights  than  like  that 
of  other  laced  varieties.  The  only  difference  between  the 
Bearded  Golden  and  the  Bearded  Silver  Polish  is  in  the  ground 
color,  which  is  golden  bay  in  one  and  white  or  silvery  white 
in  the  other. 

59.  Mating. — In  mating  the  Bearded  Silver  Polish,  suc- 
cess can  come  only  from  fowls  of  the  best  quality.  The  color 
and  markings  are  similar  to  those  of  the  Silver  Sebright,  and 
are  quite  as  difficult  to  produce  in  their  purity.  The  mossing 
of  feathers,  which  is  the  term  applied  to  black  appearing  in 
the  center  of  the  white,  is  difficult  to  obviate.  If  the  parents 
are  deficient  in  black  markings,  they  are  apt  to  produce 
offspring  with  plumage  that  is  much  too  light  for  exhibition. 
In  selecting  males  for  breediiig,  only  those  of  large  size  and  of 
perfect  breed  characters  should  be  considered,  and  they  must 
have  large  oval  crests  of  perfect  formation.  In  the  Bearded 
Silver  Polish  the  growth  of  feathers  beneath  the  beak  must 
not  only  be  profuse  but  regular  in  formation.  These  feathers 
should  be  dark  and  be  marked  with  white. 

The  feathers  of  the  body  must  have  clear  white  centers 
and  be  laced  with  a  narrow  edging  of  black  that  glistens  with 
sheen.  Tail  coverts  and  main  tail  feathers  must  be  marked 
as  shown  in  the  color  illustration.  The  same  color  and  mark- 
ings must  exist  in  both  the  Bearded  Golden  and  the  Bearded 
Silver  Polish.  The  females  used  for  breeding  should  be  hens 
in  their  second  or  third  year  that  have  sustained  their  color 
and  continued  to  be  of  good  form  and  of  perfect  color  mark- 
ings. Their  crests  must  be  globular  in  form  and  have  a  proper 
distribution  of  white  and  black ;  the  feathers  in  the  body  plu- 
mage must  be  clean  and  clear  in  the  centers  and  be  evenly  laced 
with  a  narrow  line  of  glossy  black.  Care  must  be  taken  to 
select  fowls  that  have  the  proper  shade  of  color  in  the  under 
plumage,  and  shanks  and  toes  that  are  smooth  and  have  a 
clean,  clear,  slaty-blue  shade. 


§  9  MISCELLANEOUS  FOWLS  451 


NON- BEARDED    SILVER    POLISH 

60.  The  Non-Bearded  Silver  Polish  is  the  same  in  every- 
way as  the  Bearded  Silver  PoHsh,  except  for  the  beard.  It  is 
claimed  that  both  the  Bearded  and  the  Non-Bearded  Silver 
Polish  fowls  have  been  bred  from  the  same  matings.  Whether 
or  not  this  is  true  has  not  been  proved;  but  it  is  known  that 
Houdan  fowls  without  beard  or  muff  have  been  bred  from  the 
same  matings  that  produced  offspring  having  beautifrd  crests 
and  full  beards.  The  bearded  varieties  of  fowls  usually  have 
more  profuse  feathering  in  the  crest  than  the  non-bearded 
fowls.  This  is  a  natiu-al  result  of  selecting  and  breeding  for 
a  profuse  beard.  Selecting  for  non-bearded  matings  would 
naturally  result  in  less  profuse  feathering  and  less  crest ;  other- 
wise, the  matings  for  this  variety  are  the  same  as  for  the 
Bearded  Silver  Polish.  

BEARDED  AND  NON-BEARDED  WHITE  POLISH 


BEARDED    WHITE    POLISH 

61.  Origin. — The  Bearded  White  Polish,  although 
having  a  common  origin  with  the  other  varieties,  has  come 
as  white  offspring  from  the  silver  variety  of  bearded  Polish. 
They  are  also  said  to  have  come  from  the  black  variety,  but 
the  most  acceptable  solution  of  their  origin  is  that  specimens 
that  were  white  or  nearly  so  were  selected  and  mated  for 
white  plinnage. 

62.  Development. — The  Bearded  White  Polish  fowls 
have  not  been  developed  to  a  quality  equal  to  that  of  the  other 
varieties.  Their  plumage  color  is  so  plain,  not  even  the  little 
red  in  the  head  points  showing  to  embellish  them,  that  they 
have  not  been  favorites. 

63.  History. — The  history  of  the  Bearded  White  Polish 
conforms  to  that  of  the  other  varieties  of  Polish. 

64.  Description. — The  Bearded  White  Polish  fowls  have 
the  same  breed  characters,  crest,  beard,  and  body  formation 


452  FRENCH,  POLISH,  AND  §9 

as  fowls  of  the  other  bearded  varieties.  The  only  difference 
is  in  the  color  of  their  plumage,  which  is  pure  white  through- 
out. Their  eyes  are  reddish  bay;  their  face  and  wattles  are 
red;  their  ear  lobes,  white;  their  shanks  and  toes,  blue  or  slaty 
blue.  The  comb  and  wattles  of  all  varieties  of  Polish  are  red; 
their  ear  lobes  are  white  or  red  and  white;  and  their  eyes  are 
red  or  reddish  bay. 

65.  Mating. — In  the  mating  of  Bearded  White  Polish 
unusual  care  must  be  given  to  selecting  both  males  and  females 
that  have  pure  white  plumage  and  shanks  and  toes  of  a  clean, 
clear  slaty-blue  shade,  with  smooth  surfaces.  Breed  char- 
acters must  be  marked  in  these  fowls,  and  the  beard  and  crest 
of  both  males  and  females  must  not  only  be  profuse  but  of 
large  size  and  perfect  formation.  There  are  no  color  or  mark- 
ings to  select  for  in  this  variety,  and  the  only  requirements 
are  perfect  form,  proper  size,  and  clean,  clear  color  in  plumage, 
shanks,  and  toes. 

NON -BEARDED    WHITE    POLISH 

66.  The  Non-Bearded  White  Polisli  fowls  are  identical 
with  the  Bearded  White  Polish,  with  the  exception  that  the 
beard  is  absent.  Otherwise,  they  should  be  selected  for  exhi- 
bition and  for  breeding  the  same  as  the  Bearded  White  Polish. 
Offspring  having  crests  and  fairly  good  beards,  others  having 
crests  and  but  little  beard,  and  still  others  having  crests  of 
mediiun  size  and  no  beard,  have  been  bred  from  the  same 
strain  of  Polish.  It  might  not  be  safe  to  state  that  all  three 
kinds  have  been  bred  from,  a  single  pair,  but  it  may  be  said  that 
offspring  having  full  crests  and  beard  and  offspring  with  fairly 
good  crests  and  but  little  beard  have  been  bred  from  a  single 
pair  of  White  Polish. 


§  9  MISCELLANEOUS  FOWLS  453 


MISCELLANEOUS 


SULTAN 

67.  Sultan  fowls,  which  have  more  peculiarities  of  form 
than  any  other  fowls,  have  been  called  the  Polish  fowls  of 
Ttirkey.  They  originally  had  but  little  beard,  but  this  has 
been  developed  imtil  they  are  now  heavily  bearded.  They 
are  white  fowls  of  mediimi  size  and  came  from  the  Oriental 
coimtries. 

68.  Origin. — It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  Sultan 
fowls  originated  in  Turkey,  although  they  may  have  come 
from  other  parts  of  the  Orient.  The  Sultan  and  the  Silky 
fowls  may  have  originated  in  the  same  place. 

69.  Development. — So  few  Sultan  fowls  have  been  bred 
and  so  little  attention  has  been  bestowed  on  their  development 
that  but  little  progress  has  been  made  in  their  improvement. 

70.  History. — The  history  of  the  Sultan  fowls  contains 
the  statement  that  they  were  brought  from  Constantinople 
about  1850.  Only  a  few  of  them  were  brought  into  England, 
and  a  search  in  Turkey  yielded  no  fowls  of  superior  quality. 
Those  originally  brought  from  Turkey  were  of  medium  size; 
in  shape  and  appearance  they  are  much  like  the  white  variety 
of  Polish,  but  they  had  feathers  growing  above  their  eyes, 
something  like  a  mustache,  as  well  as  a  slight  growth  of  feathers 
below  the  eyes  and  imder  the  throat,  like  a  beard.  They  had 
vulture  hocks;  shanks  and  toes  feathered;  white  plumage; 
and  five  toes.  To  improve  the  quality  and  retain  vitality, 
they  were  crossed  with  the  White  Polish.  Just  how  they  have 
been  bred  during  recent  years  cannot  be  told.  Those  recently 
exhibited  at  poultry  shows  have  the  form  and  appearance  of 
an  overgrown  Booted  White  Bantam, 


454  FRENCH,  POLISH,  AND  §9 

71.  Description. — Sultan  fowls  should  have  the  gen- 
eral appearance  of  Polish  fowls.  The  males  have  a  large, 
round  crest,  with  a  small  growth  of  feathers  near  the  front  of 
the  crest  on  each  side  of  the  comb,  which  gives  the  appearance 
of  a  heavy  mustache,  and  in  front  of  this  is  a  Y-shaped  comb ; 
growing  from  both  sides  of  the  beak  are  feathers  conforming 
to  the  side  growths  of  the  beard  in  Polish  fowls;  beneath  and 
between  the  wattles  is  a  beard;  they  have  a  long,  flowing 
hackle,  full  breasts,  short  backs,  and  profuse  tail  feathers. 
The  females  conform  to  this  description  in  an  effeminate  way. 
The  wings  of  both  males  and  females  are  large  and  strong, 
hanging  down  below  the  line  of  the  hock;  vulture  hocks  grow 
from  the  joint,  and  in  many  fowls  drag  on  the.  ground.  The 
shank  and  toe  feathering  is  like  that  of  the  Cochin.  They 
have  five  toes  on  each  foot;  blue  shanks  and  toes  like  the 
Silky,  and  pure  white  plumage  throughout.  The  males 
weigh  about  5  pounds,  and  the  females  about  4  pounds.  The 
Standard  states  that  both  thighs  and  shanks  shall  be  short ; 
accordingly,  the  fowls  seem  to  have  a  low-set  carriage,  but  they 
really  have  considerable  length  in  both  thigh  and  shank,  and 
stand  qmte  erect. 

72.  Mating. — The  only  rule  that  can  be  applied  in  the 
mating  of  Sultan  fowls  is  to  select  and  mate  the  best  that 
can  be  found. 

FRIZZLE 

73.  Origin. — In  writing  of  Frizzle  fowls,  Moubray,  in  his 
"Treatise  on  Domestic  and  Ornamental  Poultry,"  states: 
"This  fowl  is  not  infrequently  called  'Friesland,'  under  the  pop- 
ular but  erroneous  idea  that  it  has  been  brought  from  that 
country.  It  is,  however,  thought  to  be  a  native  of  Batavia, 
in  the  island  of  Java,  and  is  found  in  Japan,  Sumatra,  various 
parts  of  Southern  Asia,  and  the  Philippines.  It  derives  its 
name  from  the  peculiar  characteristic  plumage,  the  feathers 
being  curled  or  frizzled,  and  presenting  the  reverse  way  to  that 
of  ordinary  fowls.  The  prevailing  color  is  white,  and  it  is 
vStated  that  there  are  specimens  of  almost  every  shade  from  a 


§  9  MISCELLANEOUS  FOWLS  455 

gray  or  duii  color  to  a  brown  or  even  black.  The  feathers 
on  the  back  of  the  head  form  a  sort  of  erect  crest  over  an 
ambiguous  comb  that  is  indented  and  of  dual  formation, 
connected  at  the  base  but  extending  laterally  apart." 

74.  Developmeiit. — The  Frizzle  fowls  have  been  devel- 
oped only  to  the  extent  of  breeding  a  few  without  regard  to 
special  form  or  color. 

75.  History. — Frizzle  fowls  have  been  fairly  well  dis- 
tributed throughout  the  world  and  have  been  described  in  the 
American  Standard  since  its  beginning.  The  Japanese  have 
made  from  them  fowls  of  miniature  size  that  are  even  more 
striking  in  their  peculiarity  of  plumage  than  the  larger  fowls. 
T.  Farrar  Rackham,  of  New  Jersey,  bred  a  strain  of  Frizzle 
fowls  that  produced  specimens  of  remarkable  quality,  with 
buff  plumage  color.  The  hood  in  these  fowls  was  so  highly 
developed  as  to  form  a  crescent  about  the  head;  the  combs 
were  single  and  fairly  well  formed. 

76.  Description. — Frizzle  fowls  should  conform  to  the 
size  and  type  of  the  American  breeds.  They  should  be  black, 
bay  red,  or  white;  whatever  their  color,  it  must  be  even  and 
true  throughout.  The  combs  should  be  single;  all  the  feathers 
should  have  a  tendency  to  curl  in  the  opposite  direction  from 
that  usually  followed  in  poiiltry.  The  most  popular  varieties 
are  the  pure  black,  the  pure  white,  and  the  red,  which  are  in 
fact  of  a  reddish-buff  or  cinnamon  color. 

77.  Mating. — Frizzle  fowls  that  are  used  for  producing 
exhibition  offspring  should  have  compact  body  formation,  per- 
fect combs,"  and  profuse  feathering  that  is  curled  as  much  as 
possible.  The  Rackham  strain  was  made  after  years  of  care- 
ful mating,  by  selecting  and  mating  the  best  offspring  pro- 
duced each  year.  This  method  was  followed  until  the  off- 
spring had  feathers  that  rolled  like  shavings  and  were  so  intense 
about  the  head  as  to  form  a  hood.  By  continually  selecting 
the  best,  these  features  might  be  intensified  to  almost  any 
degree. 


456  FRENCH,  POLISH,  AND  §  9 


SILKY 

78.  Silky  fowls,  or  Silkies,  as  they  are  commonly  called, 
are  oddities.  Early  writers  speak  of  them  as  having  come  from 
India  and  China,  and  some  trace  them  to  Japan  and  the  Phil- 
ippines. Fowls  having  plimiage  the  same  as  the  Silky  have 
occurred  among  the  Cochin  and  other  breeds.  One  peculiarity 
of  these  fowls  is  that  their  plimiage  is  more  like  wool  or  hair 
than  like  feathers.  They  are  mentioned  as  having  white  plu- 
mage, black  plumage,  and  brown  or  rust-colored  plumage. 
Another  of  their  peculiarities  is  the  color  of  the  skin  and  flesh, 
which  is  a  dark  violet  or  blue,  and  extends  to  the  bone.  Their 
general  appearance  was  originally  like  that  of  the  early  Cochin, 
and  at  that  time  they  had  but  little  crest  and  but  few  feathers 
on  the  shanks  and  toes.  They  are  now  considered  among  the 
miscellaneous  fowls  of  the  American  Standard.  By  common 
consent,  they  are  usually  exhibited  among  the  bantams  and 
wiU  be  more  fully  described  with  the  miscellaneous-  bantams. 
They  are  mentioned  here  only  as  a  member  of  the  crested 
family. 

YOKOHAMA 

79.  Yokoliaina  fowls  were  called  Phoenix  by  the  Ger- 
mans; they  have  been  known  also  as  Long-Tailed  Japanese 
Game  and  as  Long-Tailed  Japanese  fowls.  They  are  thought 
to  be  among  the  oldest  types  of  fowls,  and  it  may  be  that  they 
are  of  the  same  race  as  the  Black  Simiatra. 

The  original  variety  color  of  this  breed  is  thought  to  have 
been  that  of  the  Duckwing,  as  this  variety  is  the  most  plentiful. 
Fowls  of  this  breed  are  said  to  have  existed  in  Japan  with  tail 
feathers  over  12  feet  long.  Males  with  sickle  feathers  more 
than  7  feet  long  have  been  seen  in  America. 

80.  Origin. — ^Japan  is  undoubtedly  the  original  home  of 
this  remarkable  breed  of  fowls,  and  they  are  known  there  as 
the  Tosa  fowls.  No  other  definite  information  can  be  gained 
relative  to  their  origin. 


§  9  MISCELLANEOUS  FOWLS  457 

81.  Development. — The  Japanese  have  developed  the 
Yokohama  fowls  for  beauty  of  plumage  and  for  length  of  tail 
feathers.  In  Japan  they  are  kept  in  cages  on  elevated  places 
to  prevent  their  plumage  from  becoming  soiled  and  to  encour- 
age greater  length.  The  modem  development  of  this  breed 
has  been  made  in  England. 

82.  History. — The  first  of  the  Yokohama  fowls  that 
attracted  attention  were  those  mentioned  in  1874  as  having 
been  seen  in  France  and  in  Germany.  Later,  a  few  were 
brought  to  America  and  some  have  been  scattered  throughout 
the  world;  but  little  attention  was  paid  to  their  breeding  prior 
to  the  organization  of  the  Yokohama  Club  of  England.  Since 
that  time  a  standard  has  been  compiled  in  England,  and  they 
have  been  so  much  improved  by  selection  and  careful  breeding 
as  to  have  been  separated  into  a  nimiber  of  varieties,  the  most 
popular  of  which  are  the  duckwing,  the  spangled,  and  the 
white. 

83.  Description. — In  general  body  formation,  the  Yoko- 
hama is  more  like  the  Sumatra  than  other  fowls.  The  neck  is 
long  and  beautifully  curved ;  the  tail,  long  and  flowing,  with  an 
abundance  of  side  hangers ;  the  sickles  and  coverts,  narrow  and 
hard ;  the  entire  tail  forms  a  gracefiil  curve  and  is  carried  rather 
low.  The  tail  feathers  of  cockerels  range  from  2  to  3  feet  long, 
and  those  of  mature  males  from  4  to  6  feet,  and,  in  a  few 
instances,  somewhat  longer.  The  females  are  almost  identi- 
cal in  body  formation  with  the  Black  Sumatra.  The  long 
tail  feathers  and  coverts  of  females  have  a  graceful  curve 
somewhat  like  the  coverts  of  the  males.  The  carriage  of  both 
is  described  as  pheasantUke.  The  fowls  are  long  and  extremely 
gracefvd.  Males  weigh  from  4|  poimds  to  6  poimds;  females, 
from  2|  to  4  pounds. 

The  Golden  and  the  Silver  Duckwing  Yokohama  fowls  have 
plumage  color  the  same  as  the  corresponding  varieties  of  game 
fowls.  The  Spangled  Yokohama  fowls  are  white  and  black  in 
plumage,  the  black  marking  for  the  greater  part  nmning 
lengthwise  of  the  feathers,  which  are  white.  The  wing  bows  of 
the  male  are  white,  and  the  wing  bars  are  black,  with  a  white 


458  FRENCH,  POLISH,  AND  §9 

lacing.  The  tail  feathers  of  the  males  and  females  are  black, 
laced  more  or  less  with  white.  The  White  Yokohama  has 
white  plumage  throughout.  The  wattles  and  ear  lobes  of  all 
varieties  are  red,  but  little  if  any  of  the  wattle  showing.  More 
value  is  placed  on  carriage  and  length  of  tail  than  on  the 
variety  color. 

84.  Mating. — In  the  mating  of  Yokohama  fowls  for  best 
results,  more  attention  must  be  bestowed  on  body  formation 
and  length  of  tail  in  both  males  and  females  than  on  plumage 
color.  Selection  can  be  made  from  among  the  best  that  have 
been  bred;  these  should  be  mated,  their  offspring  remated  to 
increase  the  length  and  beauty  of  the  tail  feathers,  to  maintain 
variety  color,  and  to  improve  vitality.  The  profuse  growth 
of  feathers  can  be  maintained  only  in  fowls  that  are  perfectly 
healthy  and  possess  all  the  vitality  that  can  be  obtained  in 
the  breed.  

NAKED  NECK 

85.  Apeculiar  breed  of  fowls  called  Naked  Neck  has  come 
from  Austria,  where  it  is  said  to  have  originated.  The  name 
comes  from  the  fact  that  the  fowls  are  destitute  of  feathers 
from  within  an  inch  or  two  back  of  the  head  down  the  entire 
length  of  the  neck  and  on  to  the  shoulders.  This  peculiarity 
of  plumage  is  very  marked,  and  the  neck  and  shoiilders  have 
an  vinnatural  appearance.  They  are  not  attractive;  in  fact, 
they  are  very  imattractive,  and  the  peculiar  sensation  to  the 
hand  when  grasping  the  naked  portion  of  the  neck  is  very 
impleasant.  The  skin  of  the  neck  is  smooth,  and,  when  exposed 
to  the  sun  during  the  summer  months,  turns  red  and  has  a  raw 
appearance,  as  if  the  blood  were  gathered  beneath  and  close  to 
the  skin.  They  are  very  hardy;  are  but  seldom  seen,  and  have 
been  bred  in  America  only  as  novelties.  The  illustration  of 
these  fowls  shown  in  Fig.  4  was  made  from  a  pair  resulting 
from  a  cross  of  a  full-blooded  Naked  Neck  male  and  Barred 
Plymouth  Rock  hens. 


§  9  MISCELLANEOUS  FOWLS  ^59 


RUMPLESS 

86.  The  Rumpless  fowls  are  very  ancient.  Tailless 
fowls  were  mentioned  by  Temminck  in  his  earliest  writings. 
They  are  also  mentioned  as  the  Rirmpless  or  Persian  cocks  of 
Latham.  Nearly  300  years  ago  this  variety  was  known  to 
Aldrovandi,  who  called  them  Persian  fowls. 

Sonini  and  Temminck  state  that  this  fowl  is  a  native  of 
the  Ceylon  forests  and  is  called  by  the  natives  WalliktkilH 


Fig.  4 

or  Cock  of  the  Woods.  This  statement  is  disputed  by  E.  L. 
Layard,  who,  when  writing  from  Ceylon  in  1850,  says  that  the 
Rumpless  fowl  is  not  a  wild  inhabitant  of  the  island,  but  is  a 
rare,  tame  introduction  from  Cochin.  That  they  did  exist 
and  do  exist  at  the  present  time  cannot  be  denied,  but  from 
what  and  from  where  they  originally  came  is  uncertain. 


460 


MISCELLANEOUS  FOWLS 


§9 


Riimpless  fowls  are  bred  in  several  variety  colors,  and  they 
are  usually  quite  like  the  Brown-Red  and  the  Duckwing  Game 
fowls  in  color.  Recently,  some  of  them  have  been  bred  by 
Professor  C.  B.  Davenport,  Director  of  the  Station  for  Experi- 


FiG.  5 

mental  Evolution,  Cold  Spring  Harbor,  Long  Island,  New 
York.  In  variety  color  these  are  like  the  Duckwing  Game 
fowls;  they  have  no  tail  feathers,  and  appear  as  if  the  rump 
were  cut  off.  At  the  left  in  Fig.  5  is  shown  a  Rimipless  female, 
and  at  the  right  a  Rumpless  male. 


GAME  FOWLS 


INTRODUCTION 

1.  It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  game  fowls  were  the 
ancestors  of  all  the  domestic  fowls.  As  wild  fowls,  they  must 
have  been  capable  of  defending  themselves  from  their  natural 
enemies.  Whether  the  miniature  type  of  the  jungle  fowls, 
as  we  now  know  them,  or  the  mammoth  type  of  the  Malay 
is  considered,  the  same  natural  conditions  would  exist.  The 
pugnacious  character  of  these  fowls  has  gained  for  them  the 
name  of  game  fowls. 

As  classed  in  the  American  Standard,  they  are  Games,  and 
in  the  English  Club  Standards  they  are  now  Game,  Modern 
Game,  and  Old-English  Game,  the  Modem  Game  of  the  English 
Club  Standards  conforming  to  the  exhibition  game  fowls  of 
the  American  Standard.  The  Old-English  Game  of  the  Eng- 
lish Club  Standards  is  the  Pit  Game  of  America,  which  is  not 
recognized  in  the  American  Standard. 

Games,  as  defined  in  the  American  Standard,  are  the  modem 
types  of  game  fowls  that  have  been  developed  from  the  Old- 
English,  or  Pit,  Game  type.  Five  stages  of  the  development 
of  game  fowls  are  shown  in  Fig.  1.  This  illustration  shows 
the  changes  that  have  occurred  from  time  to  time,  as  depicted 
by  the  artists  of  the  day,  and,  although  they  may  not  be  abso- 
lutely correct,  they  reflect  the  character  of  the  fowl  as  bred 
for  exhibition  since  1800. 

2.  In  addition  to  the  modem  type  of  game  fowl  for  exhi- 
bition, the  American  Standard  admits  the  Indian  Game 
(under  the  name  of  the  Cornish  Game),  the  Black  Sumatra 

461 


§  10  GAME  FOWLS  463 

Game,  and  the  Malay  Game.  The  Aseel  Game,  which  is 
perhaps  of  equally  ancient  origin  with  the  Malay,  has  not  been 
admitted  to  the  American  Standard,  neither  has  the  Old-Eng- 
lish Game.  Both  of  these,  however,  are  bred  to  standard, 
and  numerous  varieties  are  mentioned  in  the  club  standards 
of  England. 

To  follow  the  form  made  use  of  in  the  description  of  other 
breeds  and  varieties,  the  game  fowls  described  in  the  Amer- 
ican Standard  will  be  considered  as  of  four  general  classes, 
namely,  Exhibition  Game,  Cornish  Game,  Malay  Game,  and 
Black  Sumatra  Game.  The  Aseel  Game  and  the  Old-English 
Game  will  be  considered  as  non-standard  varieties. 


EXHIBITION  GAME 


GENERAL  DISCUSSION 

3.  With  the  beginning  of  poultry  shows-  in  England,  the 
Old-English  Game  was  the  only  type  of  game  fowl,  and  fowls 
were  shown  in  the  varieties  that  are  now  considered  as  stand- 
ard. Gradually,  and  with  great  care,  the  type  was  altered. 
At  first  the  changes  took  the  form  of  more  nearly  perfect 
plumage  color.  Lewis  Wright,  in  his  "Book  of  Poultry," 
states  that  at  first  changes  in  both  color  and  form  were  very 
moderate.  He  says:  "Exhibitors  and  judges  alike  under- 
stood that  the  game  fowl  was  different  somehow  from  the  breeds 
that  were  often  termed,  in  comparison,  'the  heavy,  cart-horse 
style.'  The  tendency  was  natural  to  prefer  the  somewhat 
taller  and  more  reachy  fowls;  and  to  a  certain  extent,  the  modi- 
fied type  did  naturally,  although  confined  to  the  earliest  and 
more  moderate  degree,  appeal  even  to  the  general  public  with 
a  beauty  of  its  own,  and  was  welcomed  by  many  for  the  very 
reason  that  it  was  somewhat  different  from  the  original  cock- 
fighting  model." 

The  first  change  in  exhibition  game  fowls  worthy  of  note 
was  in  1850.  At  that  time  they  had  much  the  same  body  for- 
mation that  now  belongs  to  the  Old-English  Game,  with  the 


464  GAME  FOWLS  §  10 

exception  that  the  separation  of  color  was  more  pronounced, 
their  carriage  was  less  erect,  and  their  combs  and  wattles  were 
more  closely  trimmed  than  was  usual  for  the  Old-English  Game. 
From  then  to  1875,  greater  differences  were  found  in  body  for- 
mation, length  of  shanks,  and  carriage  of  body  and  tail.  About 
that  time  the  first  mention  of  the  "slim  tail"  occurred.  The 
Standard  of  1875  describes  the  tail  of  the  male  as  being  carried 
well  together  and  at  a  moderate  elevation.  The  thighs  and 
shanks  were  rather  long.  From  then  to  the  present  time, 
the  development  has  been  gradual.  The  type  of  exhibition 
game  fowls  most  admired  at  this  time  is  shown  in  the  color 
illustrations. 

The  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  has  always  been  considered 
the  model  in  form  and  color,  and  is,  perhaps,  the  original  from 
which  all  other  game  fowls  have  descended.  The  games  are 
described  in  alphabetical  order.  The  origin  and  development 
of  the  exhibition  game  fowls  is  told  in  connection  with  the 
discussion  of  the  Black-Breasted  Red  Game,  and  the  origin 
and  development  of  each  variety  will  be  given  under  its  proper 
heading. 

4.  One  of  the  important  requirements  in  the  breeding  of 
exhibition  game  fowls  is  the  selection  of  both  males  and  females 
with  the  breed  characters  of  the  modem  exhibition  game 
fowls.  One  of  the  breed  characters  of  exhibition  game  fowls 
is  large  bone  formation  in  the  shank  and  thigh,  and  to  produce 
this  in  the  offspring  they  must  have  certain  environments  that 
cannot  be  found  in  all  localities.  A  limestone  subsoil  is  well 
suited  to  them,  and  they  will  grow  quickly  in  localities  where 
this  condition  exists.  Persons  experienced  in  breeding  game 
fowls  have  failed  with  them  in  some  localities  and  have 
succeeded  remarkably  well  in  others. 

To  succeed  in  the  production  of  game  fowls,  not  only  must 
the  matings  be  of  the  best  and  the  feeding  for  bone  develop- 
ment be  well  suited  to  them,  but  the  care  and  surroundings 
must  be  such  as  to  make  them  prosper.  It  is  almost  impos- 
sible to  breed  exhibition  game  fowls  in  damp  places. 


10  GAME  FOWLS  465 


BIRCHEN  GAME 

5.  Origin. — The  Birchen  Game  was  made  by  mating 
fowls  of  two  varieties,  the  Brown-Red  Game  and  the  Silver 
Duckwing  Game,  and  then  selecting  and  remating  the  offspring 
for  the  production  of  a  fowl  in  almost  exact  contrast  to  the 
Brown- Red  Game.  Judging  from  the  various  claims  that  have 
been  made,  several  kinds  of  ma  tings  were  effected  to  produce 
them.  The  original,  perhaps,  from  which  the  present  Birchen 
Game  has  descended  was  known  as  the  Silver  Birchen  Gray- 
Game.  By  crossing  fowls  of  this  variety,  which  were  more  or 
less  like  those  of  the  Silver  Duckwing  Game  variety,  with 
Brown-Red  Game  fowls  having  a  pale  lemon  or  straw  color, 
the  birchen  color  was  obtained. 

6.  Development. — The  recent  development  of  the  Birchen 
Game  fowls  has  been  more  rapid  than  might  have  been 
expected,  due  to  the  fact  that  they  breed  true  to  color.  Good 
offspring  of  both  sexes  are  produced  from  single  matings,  it 
being  necessary  only  to  select  with  care  the  fowls  of  this  variety 
that  have  the  type  and  color  most  admired;  from  such  fowls, 
improvement  is  rapid. 

7.  History. — Birchen  Game  fowls  have  never  been  so 
plentiful  nor  so  popular  as  fowls  of  other  varieties.  They  have 
been  considered  as  kindred  to  the  Brown-Red  Game  fowls. 
It  has, been  asserted  that  both  Brown-Red  Game  and  Birchen 
Game  fowls  of  superior  exhibition  quality  have  been  bred 
from  a  single  mating,  but  this  can  scarcely  be  authenticated. 
When  a  Silver  Duckwing  Game  or  a  Birchen  Game  male  is 
mated  to  Brown-Red  Game  females,  both  Brown-Red  Game 
and  Birchen  Game  fowls  have  been  produced,  but  not  from 
the  one  hen. 

8.  Description. — The  shape  and  general  make-up  of  all 
exhibition  game  fowls  should  be  the  same;  the  only  difference 
should  be  in  plumage  color.  In  the  Birchen  Game  male,  the 
top  color,  including  hackle,  back  saddle,  shotdder  coverts,  and 
wing  bows,  is  silvery  white;  the  feathers  of  the  neck  hackle  are 


466      .  GAME  FOWLS  §  10 

marked  down  the  center  with  a  narrow  stripe  of  black  (a  hackle 
free  from  black  is  most  admired) ;  the  rest  of  the  body  plumage 
is  a  rich,  glossy  black;  and  the  breast  feathers  have  a  narrow 
lacing  of  white,  but  this  lacing  grows  narrower  and  narrower 
until  none  of  it  appears  on  the  under  part  of  the  breast'  and 
body  plumage. 

The  female  Birchen  Game  has  a  light-colored  hackle  striped 
with  black;  the  rest  of  the  body  plumage  is  black;  the  feathers 
of  the  breast  are  laced  with  white.  The  eyes  of  both  males 
and  females  are  black;  the  head  and  its  attachments  are  dark 
purple,  or  gypsy  color.  The  shanks  and  toes  are  black.  The 
beauty  of  the  Birchen  Game  is  due  mainly  to  the  clean,  clear, 
silvery- white  top  color  of  the  male,  the  neck  hackle  of  the  same 
color  in  the  female,  and  the  narrow,  silvery-white  lacing  on 
the  breasts  of  both  sexes.  The  main  tail  feathers  of  both  sexes 
shotdd  be  black ;  and  the  sickles  and  coverts  of  the  male  should 
glisten  with  sheen.  The  general  body  formation  of  game 
fowls  is  shown  in  the  color  illustrations. 

9.  Mating. — To  succeed  in  breeding  Birchen  Game  fowls 
for  exhibition,  it  is  necessary  to  establish  a  strain  that  can  be 
depended  on  to  reproduce  good  quality.  To  establish  such  a 
strain,  only  Birchen  Game  fowls  of  the  proper  type  and  color 
must  be  mated.  When  color  needs  strengthening,  a  Brown- 
Red  male  or  female  may  be  selected  and  bred  into  the  strain. 
When  this  is  done,  the  Brown-Red  fowl  should  be  as  pale  in 
markings  as  can  be  selected.  To  avoid  too  much  lacing  on 
the  breast,  males  having  but  little  of  it  can  be  used  in  the 
matings. 

Other  methods  of  mating,  however,  are  followed.  It  is  not 
unusual  for  Brown-Red  Game,  Birchen  Game,  Silver  Duck- 
wing  Game,  or  Golden  Duckwing  Game  females  to  be  mated 
to  either  light-colored  Brown-Red  Game  or  dark-colored 
Birchen  Game  males  for  the  production  of  exhibition  fowls  of 
several  kinds.  No  dependence  can,  however,  be  placed  on 
the  breeding  quality  of  even  the  most  beautiful  fowls  that 
are  produced  in  this  way.  It  is  best,  for  continued  success, 
to  keep  the  strains  true  and  pure,  only  strengthening  them  when 


§  10  GAME  FOWLS  467 

necessary  from  the  Brown-Red  or  the  Silver  Duckwing  Game 
varieties,  and  to  leave  the  chance  matings  and  experimental 
work  to  those  who  have  acquired  this  art  by  years  of  experience. 


BLACK  GAME 

10.  Origin. — The  Black  Game  fowl  was  made  by  select- 
ing and  mating  black  fowls  of  different  varieties  of  game  fowls. 

11.  Developraent. — The  development  of  the  Black  Game 

has  been  accomplished  by  selecting  and  mating  the  best  game 
fowls  that  had  black  plinnage  throughout,  and  selecting  and 
mating  the  best  offspring  for  shape  and  color. 

12.  History. — Black  Game  fowls  are  considered  more  as 
a  novelty  than  as  a  true  variety.  English  writers  of  50  years 
ago  mention  them  as  possibilities  for  the  "any  other  variety" 
classes,  but  state  that  they  are  not  considered  a  true  variety 
in  the  same  sense  as  the  other  kinds. 

13.  Description. — The  Black  Game  fowls  are  black 
throughout,  including  the  beak,  shanks,  and  toes.  The  blacker 
the  plumage  and  the  greater  the  show  of  sheen,  the  more  desir- 
able they  are.  The  eyes  are  brown;  the  face,  wattles,  and  ear 
lobes,  deep  red,  almost  as  dark  a  red  as  those  of  the  Birchen 
Game  fowls. 

14.  Mating. — In  mating  Black  Game  fowls,  only  those 
of  the  best  form  possible  should  be  selected,  "and  special  atten- 
tion, also,  should  be  given  to  selecting  those  of  pure,  lustrous 
black  plumage  throughout,  with  considerable  sheen,  black 
shanks,  toes,  and  beak,  and  dark  eyes  and  face.  If  such  fowls 
are  systematically  bred,  it  is  possible  to  establish  a  strain  of 
beautiful  Black  Game  fowls  that  will  consistently  reproduce 
desirable  offspring. 


468  GAME  FOWLS  §  10 


BLACK-BREASTED  RED  GAME 

15.  Origin. — In  making  the  present  type  of  Black- 
Breasted  Red.  Game  fowls,  Malays  were  liberally  used  in 
the  crosses.  This  was  to  give  greater  length  of  leg,  to  elevate 
the  carriage,-  and  to  shorten  the  plumage  and  make  it  more 
compact,  as  well  as  to  modify  the  color.  These  changes  brought 
objectionable  features,  such  as  coarse  heads,  necks,  combs, 
and  eyes,  all  of  which  have  been  bred  out  by  careful  selection. 

16.  Development. — The  development  of  the  Black- 
Breasted  Red  Game  fowls  has  been  continued  until  a  greater 
length  of  leg  has  been  established  than  is  found  naturally  in 
the  Malay.  These  fowls  have  more  erect  carriage  and  a  dif- 
ferent shape  of  body  than  is  found  in  other  kinds  of  game 
fowls.  They  have  been  altered  in  color  and  body  formation 
to  such  an  extent  that  they  have  been  transformed  from  dark- 
colored  fowls  with  a  heavy,  low-set  body  to  light-colored  fowls 
of  tall  and  slender  proportions.  The  change  in  the  carriage 
of  the  head  and  tail  has  also  helped  to  give  them  a  distinct 
appearance. 

17.  History. — The  histofy  of  the  Black-Breasted  Red 
Game  fowls  differs  but  little  from  that  of  the  other  varieties 
of  game  fowls.  With  the  banishing  of  the  pit  from  royal 
patronage,  the  game  fowl  ceased  to  be  generally  admired. 
Then  came  the  desire  to  make  game  fowls  popular  by  produ- 
cing beautiful  specimens  for  exhibition.  With  this  in  view  a 
beginning  was  made,  and  their  improved  form  and  color 
attracted  the  attention  of  persons  fond  of  exhibition  poultry. 
The  first  marked  improvement  was  recorded  when  John 
Douglas,  of  England,  won  the  cup  at  the  Crystal  Palace  Show 
in  1870  with  a  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  cock  of  such  remark- 
able quality  that  it  attracted  world-wide  attention.  This 
variety  was  so  changed  as  to  make  the  game  fowls  of  1900 
marvels  in  the  way  of  exhibition  fowls.  This,  however,  deprived 
the  average  fancier  of  the  pleasure  of  keeping  game  fowls,  and 
a  desire  sprang  up  for  a  fowl  less  difficult  to  breed,  with  the 
result  that  the  Old-English  Game  type  was  revived. 


241-1  L  T  117    §  10 


Black-Beeasted  Red  Games 


§  10  GAME  FOWLS  469 

18.  Description. — The  carriage  of  game  fowls  is  called 
station.  A  game  fowl  with  good  station  stands  in  an  upright 
or  erect  position  and  has  a  great  length  from  the  tip  of  the  toe 
to  the  end  of  the  beak.  When  a  Black-Breasted  Red  Game 
fowl  stands  as  it  should  for  exhibition,  an  almost  direct  line 
can  be  drawn  from  the  center  of  the  eye  down  through  the  wing 
and  along  the  thigh  to  the  ground.  The  positions,  or  stations, 
of  the  game  fowls  most  popular  for  exhibition  are  shown  in  the 
color  illustrations. 

In  each  of  these  illustrations  a  different  position  is  shown, 
any  one  of  which  may  be  accepted  as  correct  for  a  game  fowl, 
and,  although  one  of  these  positions  is  demanded  for  the  exhi- 
bition pen,  the  fowls  do  not  conform  to  this  general  make-up 
when  seen  in  their  natural  condition.  The  exhibition  type  of 
game  fowl  is  so  largely  artificial  that  it  can  acquire  its  most 
correct  position  only  by  careful  training.  The  Standard 
describes  the  natural  form  and  color  of  game  fowls,  but  the  type 
that  wins  in  the  show  room  is  made  by  the  fanciers  best  able 
to  train  them  to  assume  the  positions  shown. 

The  modem  exhibition  game  cock  is  of  unusual  length  in 
every  section;  its  carriage  is  upright,  and  it  is  active  and  alert. 
The  comb,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  must  be  shaved  off  so  close 
to  the  head  as  to  give  the  head  the  appearance  of  having  been 
skinned,  thus  making  it  long  and  flat  on  top  and  extending  it 
to  the  point  of  the  beak.  The  neck  is  arched  and  slim.  The 
body  formation  is  described  as  egg-shaped,  the  larger  end  of 
the  egg  being  at  the  shoulders  and  the  point  of  the  egg  at  the 
rump.  From  the  rump  grows  a  slim,  narrow  tail,  the  main 
feathers  of  which  are  almost  straight  and  very  slender  for  the 
size  of  the  fowl.  The  thighs  and  shanks  are  long,  but  there 
is  a  greater  length  in  the  thigh  from  the  body  to  the  hock  joint 
than  in  the  shank  from  the  hock  to  the  ground.  The  bones 
of  the  shank  are  strong,  and  the  toes  are  weU  spread  or  sep- 
arated,-and  no  deformity  of  feet  is  permitted.  The  females 
should  conform  in  a  general  way  to  the  shape  of  the  males. 

The  weight  of  modem  English  game  fowls  varies  from  6  to 
8  pounds,  the  lighter  weight  being  that  of  pullets,  and  the 
heavier  weight  being  that  of  the  largest  males. 


470  GAME  FOWLS  §  10 

The  head  points,  including  the  eyes,  are  bright  red;  the  beak, 
shanks,  and  toes  are  of  a  willow  color.  In  the  American 
Standard,  the  beak  is  described  as  horn  colored;  in  the  English 
Club  Standards,  as  dark  green.  The  hackle  of  the  males  is 
preferably  orange  yellow,  but  ranges  from  orange  red  to  a 
light,  golden  color,  with  no  striping;  the  back  and  saddle  are 
rich  crimson  or  bright  red,  with  a  lighter  or  golden-orange 
shade  in  the  saddle;  the  wing  bows  range  from  orange  to  red; 
the  wing  bars  are  greenish  black;  the  secondaries  are  rich  bay 
on  the  outer  edge  and  black  on  the  inner  edge  and  tips,  the 
bay  showing  when  the  wing  is  folded;  the  primaries  are  black, 
with  a  bay  edge ;  the  body  color  is  black,  glistening  with  sheen ; 
the  main  tail  feathers  and  the  tail  coverts  are  black,  glistening 
with  sheen. 

The  hackle  of  the  females  is  light  orange  or  gold,  striped 
with  black;  the  breast  is  a  rich  salmon,  shading  to  grayish 
brown  on  the  thighs;  the  tail  is  black,  the  topmost  feathers 
matching  the  body  plumage;  the  rest  of  the  plumage  is  of  a 
nch  partridge  color,  finely  penciled  with  a  slight  golden  tinge. 
This  is  the  color  demanded  by  the  English  Club  Standards; 
the  American  Standard  requires  a  grayish-brown  body  color, 
stippled  with  golden  brown.  Of  whatever  shade  the  body 
plumage  of  the  female  may  be,  it  must  be  even  and  free  from 
reddish  shadings  or  lacing.  The  preference  is  given  to  an  even 
shade  of  light  brown  throughout  the  body  plumage,  which  is 
stippled  with  a  shade  of  golden  brown. 

19.  Mating. — Single  matings  of  males  and  females  of  the 
best  exhibition  quality  may  produce  remarkable  results,  but 
no  fowls  lacking  in  form  or  color  should  be  used.  To  produce 
more  certain  results,  double  matings  must  be  practiced  and 
strains  of  male  producers  and  female  producers  must  be  estab- 
lished. In  mating  for  the  production  of  exquisite  color  in 
males,  a  line  must  be  estabhshed  by  mating  and  remating 
imtil  the  proper  color  is  obtained.  When  this  has  been  accom- 
pHshed,  no  new  blood  should  be  introduced  into  a  strain.  A 
line  for  the  production  of  females  must  be  estabhshed  in  the 
same  way. 


§  10  GAME  FOWLS  471 

The  lighter  and  more  brilliant  shade  of  red  in  the  males  can 
be  bred  only  from  the  brightest-colored  males  mated  with 
females  that  have  light  lemon-colored  hackles;  but  such  males 
are  likely  to  have  too  little  color  in  the  wing  bays,  back,  and 
wing  bows.  This  can  be  improved  by  selecting  and  breeding 
from  only  the  best.  Beautiful  females  will  be  produced  from 
these  same  matings.  The  orange  yellow  in  the  hackle,  back, 
and  saddle  plumage  can  be  maintained  only  in  this  way,  and 
no  other  variety  should  be  crossed  into  them.  The  practice 
of  using  Wheaten  Game  fowls  for  breeding  Black-Breasted 
Red  Game  males,  and  brick-red  males  for  pullet  breeding 
should  be  discontinued. 

To  have  the  clear,  clean  back  and  wing  color  so  much  admired 
in  females  with  proper  breast  color,  it  is  necessary  to  eliminate 
red  from  the  body  plumage.  No  females  having  red  in  the 
back  or  wing  or  lacing  on  the  edges  of  the  feathers  should  be 
used  in  matings  for  pullets;  nor  should  males  having  deep-red 
plumage  be  used.  Only  females  of  the  desired  color  should 
be  mated  with  males  having  orange-yellow  hackle  and  saddle 
plumage  and  a  light-red  top  color. 


BROWN-RED  GAME 

20.  Origin . — The  Brown-Red  Game  fowl  was  made  from 
what  were  formerly  known  as  Brown-Breasted  Red  Game  fowls. 
Their  ancestors  were  so  called  from  the  fact  that  the  breast 
color  of  the  males  was  brown  or  reddish  brown.  The  color  dis- 
tinctions were  at  that  time  less  pronounced  than  at  the  present. 
Having  descended  from  the  Old-English  Game  fowls  of  the 
same  name,  they  inherited  from  them  the  reddish-brown  color 
of  breast  and  other  markings  peculiar  to  that  variety. 

21.  Development. — The  development  of  the  Brown-Red 
Game  fowls  is  described  in  connection  with  their  history. 
They  are  perhaps  more  artificial  than  fowls  of  other  varieties. 

22.  History. — ^With  the  development  of  the  modem  type 
of  game  fowls  came  a  desire  to  have  the  Brown-Red  Game  more 
beautifully  marked  than  formerly.     Beginning  with  what  was 


472  GAME  FOWLS  §  10 

known  as  starling-colored  breast  plumage,  which  was  bay  or 
brown  or  brown  streaked  with  bay  and  a  crimson  top  color, 
or  a  black  breast  with  a  narrow  lacing  of  bay  and  a  top  color 
of  orange  red  and  crimson,  they  have  been  changed  and 
improved  until  both  males  and  females  now  have  black  breast 
plumage,  the  feathers  being  edged  with  a  light  lemon  or  straw 
color.  In  the  transformation  from  the  intermingling  of  red, 
brown,  and  black  in  breast  and  body  plumage,  and  the  same 
parts  marked  with  bay,  a  fowl  has  been  developed  whose  breast 
and  body  plumage  is  black,  or  as  the  English  describesit,  green- 
ish black,  and  whose  feathers  are  laced  with  lemon  color.  The 
Brown-Red  Game  fowls  have  never  been  as  populat-  in  Amer- 
ica as  in  England;  as  bred  in  America,  the  bantams  of  this 
variety  are  of  better  quality  than  the  larger  fowls. 

23.  Description. — The  English  Club  Standards  and  the 
American  Standard  differ  somewhat  in  the  descriptions  of  the 
color  of  the  Brown-Red  Game  fowls.  The  English  Standard 
states  that  the  beak  should  be  dark,  preferably  black ;  the  eyes, 
comb,  face,  wattles,  ear  lobes,  legs,  and  feet,  black;  and  that 
there  shoiild  be  but  two  colors  in  the  plimiage — ^lemon  and 
black.  In  the  cock,  the  lemon  should  be  rich  and  bright;  in 
the  hen,  light;  the  black  in  both  males  and  females  should 
have  a  bright  green  gloss  known  as  beetle  green.  The  Amer- 
ican Standard  states  that  the  beak  and  eyes  should  be  black; 
the  comb,  face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes,  dark  purple.  The  top 
color  of  males  should  be  bright  lemon.  The  feathers  of  the 
neck  hackle  should  be  striped  through  the  center  with  black; 
the  rest  of  the  body  plimiage  is  black,  the  breast  feathers  being 
laced  with  lemon;  the  sickle  and  tail  coverts  are  lustrous  black. 

In  the  females,  the  entire  body  plumage  should  be  black; 
the  neck  hackles,  lemon  color,  with  a  narrow  striping  of 
black;  the  breast  feathers,  laced  with  lemon.  In  both  males 
and  females,  the  lacing  should  extend  down  the  breast,  gradually 
growing  less  as  it  approaches  the  thighs.  In  some  fowls,  the 
lacing  extends  down  the  entire  breast  and  on  to  the  thigh. 
This,  however,  is  not  desirable,  as  it  should  end  where  the 
thigh  joins  the  breast  plumage. 


§  10  GAME  FOWLS  473 

24.  Mating. — The  mating  of  Brown-Red  Game  fowls  for 
producing  exhibition  offspring  of  good  quality  is  most  difficult. 
Persons  who  have  succeeded  in  breeding  this  variety  claim  that 
they  can  be  produced  only  by  having  separate  matings  for 
males  and  females.  To  produce  males  for  exhibition  they 
mate  a  male  that  is  perfect  in  exhibition  qualities  with  females 
deficient  in  breast  markings  but  having  an  excess  of  black  in 
their  hackles.  If  the  feathers  on  the  head  of  the  female  are 
almost  black,  such  would  be  preferred  for  this  mating.  A 
male  that  is  laced  down  into  the  thighs  and  along  the  side 
beneath  the  wings,  mated  to  a  female  lacking  in  this  respect 
may  produce  good  cockerels.  Exhibition  pullets  may  be  bred 
from  exhibition  females  mated  to  males  lacking  in  breast  mark- 
ings. Such  matings  are  made  on  the  assumption  that  a  defect 
in  marking  in  one  parent  may  be  improved  in  the  offspring 
if  an  excessive  amount  of  marking  is  present  on  the  parent 
of  the  opposite  sex. 

Better  results  will  be  obtained  in  the  greater  proportion  of 
the  offspring  from  single  matings  of  fowls  correct  in  form  and 
color,  and  then  in  turn  mating  their  offspring  until  a  strain 
has  been  established  that  will  produce  color  and  markings 
of  a  better  quality  than  can  come  from  chance  matings  in 
which  one  fowl  has  excessive  color  and  the  other  too  little. 
Many  experiments  have  been  made  by  crossing  Duckwing 
and  Birchen  Game  fowls  with  Brown-Red  Game  fowls,  and 
although  some  desirable  exhibition  offspring  have  been  pro- 
duced, the  results  from  them  are  very  imcertain. 

To  produce  Brown-Red  Game  fowls  of  a  clean,  clear  black 
throughout  and  having  lemon-colored  markings,  only  males 
and  females  possessing  such  color  and  markings  in  the  highest 
degree  should  be  used.  Too  much  lacing  on  the  throat  and 
breast  is  apt  to  appear.  To  overcome  this,  males  with  very 
little  lacing  on  the  breast  should  be  mated  with  females  that 
are  properly  marked.  Color  and  markings  can  be  governed 
through  the  males,  and  for  this  reason  males  should  always 
have  color  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible,  and  not  too  much 
lacing  on  their  breasts.  Marked  attention  must  be  given  to 
having  the  head,  shanks,  and  toes,  a  bright,  clean,  clear  black. 


474  GAME  FOWLS  §  10 

It  is  best  to  follow  the  rule  of  color  in  the  English  Club  Stand- 
ards when  mating  for  the  production  of  the  best  color;  and, 
although  the  American  Standard  describes  combs,  face,  wat- 
tles, and  ear  lobes  as  dark  purple,  the  nearer  they  are  to  black 
the  better  they  will  appear,  and  the  more  certain  the  fowls  will 
be  to  produce  offspring  of  the  best  color. 


DUCKWING  GAME 

25.  Origin. — ^The  origin  of  the  Duckwlng  Game  fowl  is 
the  same  as  the  origin  of  other  varieties.  They  are  cross-bred 
fowls,  and,  although  they  are  not  cross-bred  as  the  term  is 
generally  imderstood,  they  are  game  fowls  that  have  come  from 
crossing  Black-Breasted  Red  Game,  Duckwing-bred  Black- 
Breasted  Red  Game,  and  Duckwing  Game  fowls.  The  Silver 
Duckwing  Game  fowls  were  at  one  time  an  original  race,  but 
as  now  bred,  they  are  artificial  in  the  extreme,  as  are  also  the 
Golden  Duckwing  Game  fowls.  They  are  so  closely  allied  to 
the  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  fowls  as  to  make  them  almost 
one  and  the  same,  but  in  some  respects  they  are  quite  different. 

Duckwing  Game  fowls  are  bred  in  two  varieties,  the  Golden 
Duckwing  and  the  Silver  Duckwing.  The  Silver  Duckwing 
Game  fowls  have  descended  from  a  well-established  strain  of 
the  Pit  Game  type,  but,  like  the  Black-Breasted  Red  Game 
fowls,  they  have  been  subjected  to  crosses  with  the  Malay 
fowls.  The  Golden  Duckwing  Game  fowls  have  been  made 
through  the  intermingling  of  the  exhibition  types  of  Black- 
Breasted  Red  and  the  Silver  Duckwing  Game  fowls,  the  darker 
specimens  of  the  Silver  Duckwing  Game  being  used  to  soften 
the  golden  color  of  the  Golden  Duckwing  Game  fowls  for 
exhibition. 

26.  Development. — The  development  of  both  the  Silver 
Duckwing  and  the  Golden  Duckwing  Game  fowls  is  described 
in  connection  with  mating  them  for  the  production  of  exhi- 
bition offspring. 

27.  History. — The  history  of  the  Duckwing  Game  fowls 
goes  back  to  the  general  history  of  the  Old-English,  or  Pit, 


241-1  LT  117    §10 


Silver  Duckwixg  Games 


§  10  GAME  FOWLS  475 

Game  fowls.  The  history  of  the  modem  exhibition  Duckwing 
Game  fowls  is  identical  with  that  of  all  varieties  of  exhibition 
game  fowls,  except  that  this  variety  has  been  less  popular 
and  has  received  less  attention  than  might  have  been  expected 
when  their  beauty  is  considered. 

28.  Description  of  Golden  Duckwing  Game  Fowls. 

Both  the  male  and  the  female  Golden  Duckwing  Game  fowls 
have  beaks  of  a  dark  horn  color;  the  eyes,  head,  comb,  face, 
wattles,  and  ear  lobes  are  red;  and  the  shanks  and  toes  are  a 
willow  color.  The  hackle  plumage  of  the  male  is  creamy 
white  and  free  from  striping;  the  back  and  saddle,  including 
the  wing  bows,  are  orange,  ranging  from  a  pale  to  a  rich  shade ; 
some  persons  describe  this  orange  as  golden.  The  finest  exhi- 
bition fowls  usually  have  wing  bows  of  a  rich  orange;  wing 
bays,  pure  white;  neck  hackle,  creamy  white;  and  wing  pri- 
maries, white  on  the  outer  edge  and  black  on  the  inner  edge 
and  tips.  When  the  wing  is  folded,  the  white  shows  more 
plainly  in  the  wing  bays,  and  above  that  are  black  bars,  embel- 
lished with  a  glistening  sheen.  The  rest  of  the  body  plumage 
of  the  male  is  black;  the  sickles  and  coverts  of  the  tail  are  lus- 
trous black,  shading  to  blue  rather  than  to  green.  The  hackle 
of  the  female  is  white,  striped  with  black;  the  throat  and 
breast  plimiage  is  salmon,  shading  into  gray  as  it  approaches 
the  thighs.  The  main  tail  feathers  are  black;  the  rest  of  the 
body  plimiage  is  French,  or  steel,  gray,  slightly  penciled  with 
black,  according  to  the  English  Standard;  and  gray  stippled 
with  darker  gray,  according  to  the  American  Standard. 

29.  Description  of  Silver  Duckwing   Game  Fowls. 

The  color  of  head  points,  eyes,  and  shanks  is  the  same  in  the 
silver  as  in  the  golden  variety.  In  fact,  about  the  only  dif- 
ference in  the  color  and  markings  of  these  varieties  is  that 
the  male  of  the  silver  variety  has  white  markings,  including  the 
hackle,  and  the  female  is  of  a  lighter  shade  of  gray.  The 
English  fanciers  describe  the  plumage  of  the  female  of  the  golden 
variety  as  French,  or  steel,  gray,  slightly  penciled  with  black, 
and  of  the  silver  variety  as  light  French  gray,  with  almost 
invisible  black  penciling. 


476  GAME  FOWLvS  §  10 

The  Golden  Duckwing  Game  males  have  the  orange  mark- 
ings that  influence  a  darker  shade  of  plumage  in  the  females 
of  that  variety.  The  intermingling  of  pure  white  with  the 
black-red  has  softened  the  color  of  the  silver  variety,  giving 
the  female  a  most  delicately  tinted  surface  color.  The  dis- 
tinction between  these  two  varieties  is  plainly  shown  in  the 
color  illustrations  of  the  Duckwing  Game  and  the  Duckwing 
Game  Bantam  fowls.  In  the  color  illustration  of  the  Duck- 
wing Game  fowls,  the  male  is  of  the  silver  variety,  the  female 
with  him  is  of  the  golden  variety,  and  the  female  in  the  back- 
groimd  is  of  the  silver  variety. 

30.  Mating. — Several  methods  of  mating  to  produce 
Golden  Duckwing  and  Silver  Duckwing  Game  fowls  are  prac- 
ticed by  those  skilled  in  the  art  of  producing  exhibition  game 
fowls.  All  of  these  methods,  which  are  given  in  the  follow- 
ing paragraphs,  are  necessary  for  producing  and  maintaining 
the  several  shades  of  color  and  markings  sought  in  exhibition 
fowls. 

1.  A  pure-bred  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  male  with  no 
trace  of  markings  in  hackle  or  saddle  plumage  and  the  less  red 
the  better,  may  be  mated  with  a  Duckwing  Game  female. 
If  a  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  male  that  has  clean,  clear 
black  where  that  color  exists,  the  red  very  mild  and  verging 
to  an  orange  shade,  with  purple  rather  than  green  wing  bars, 
can  be  selected  and  mated  with  a  Duckwing  Game  female, 
it  may  produce  offspring  fit  for  exhibition  as  Golden  Duck- 
wing Game  fowls.  It  may  be  that  only  the  cockerels  from 
such  a  mating  will  answer  for  exhibition.  Pullets  so  produced 
can  be  mated  with  Duckwing  Game  males. 

2.  A  Duckwing  Game  male  mated  with  Duckwing  Game 
females  is  likely  to  produce  both  males  and  females  fit  for 
exhibition.  Exhibition  fowls  of  both  the  golden  and  the  silver 
varieties  may  be  produced  from  this  kind  of  mating.  This  is 
likely  to  be  true  when  the  male  is  strong  in  Golden  Duckwing 
Game  coloring  and  the  females  range  from  very  dark  Golden 
Duckwing  Game  coloring  to  thfe  very  lightest  tint  permissible 
in  the  Silver  Duckwing  Game  females. 


§  10  GAME  FOWLS  477 

3.  To  produce  pullets  for  exhibition,  a  Duckwing  Game 
male  is  mated  with  Duckwing-bred  Black-Breasted  Red  Game 
females.  From  such  matings  pullets  of  both  the  golden  and 
the  silver  varieties  will  be  produced.  Any  cockerels  of  either 
variety  that  are  produced  in  this  way  and  that  are  fit  for  exhi- 
bition shotild  be  kept  not  only  for  exhibition  but  for  breeding 
with  hens  strong  in  the  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  blood. 
The  pullets  so  produced  may  be  mated  with  either  a  piu-e-bred 
Black-Breasted  Red  Game  or  a  Golden  Duckwing  Game  male. 
When  such  pullets  are  mated  with  Golden  Duckwing  Game 
males,  they  are  more  likely  to  produce  dark-plumaged  offspring 
than  when  they  are  mated  with  a  Black-Breasted  Red  Game 
male  that  has  light-colored  markings. 

4.  A  Silver  Duckwing  Game  male  of  perfect  color  and 
markings  mated  with  Duckwing  Game  or  pure-bred  Black- 
Breasted  Red  Game  females  is  likely  to  produce  pullets  with 
delicately  colored  body  plixmage.  The  more  delicate  in  color 
the  males  and  the  softer  in  color  the  females,  the  lighter  will 
be  the  body  color  of  the  offspring.  The  most  expert  breeders 
of  game  fowls  claim  that  more  success  will  come  from  breed- 
ing Golden  Duckwing  Game  males  with  Golden  Duckwing 
and  Silver  Duckwing  Game  females  and  then  selecting  and 
mating  the  best  offspring.  To  intensify  the  color,  only  Black- 
Breasted  Red  Game  females  of  the  cockerel-bred  Hne  should 
be  used. 

5.  The  delicate  colors  of  Duckwing  Game  fowls  are  pro- 
duced by  a  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  male  of  a  cockerel- 
breeding  strain  that  has  rich,  black  plumage,  clear  hackle 
and  saddle  feathers,  and  a  good  color  in  the  wing  bays,  mated 
with  Duckwing  Game  females  of  excellent  type  that  have 
coarse  or  heavy  markings  and  are  rusty  on  the  wing  bows. 
All  cockerels  produced  by  such  matings  wiU  be  Duckwing  Game 
of  both  varieties,  and  most  of  the  piillets  will  be  Black-Breasted 
Red  Game,  which  will  be  useful  only  for  breeding  with  good- 
colored  Duckwing  Game  males.  The  Black-Breasted  Red 
Game  males  used  for  pullet  breeding  are  much  lighter  than 
those  used  for  cockerel  breeding,  and  have  but  little  color  on 
the  back  and  wings.     If  the  Duckwing  Game  females  used  have 


478  GAME  FOWLS  §  10 

deep  color,  or  if  the  piillets  from  the  cockerel  matings  are  used, 
they  must  be  mated  to  a  pullet-breeding  Silver  Duckwing 
Game  male.  

RED  PYLE  GAME 

31.  In  conformity  with  the  American  Standard,  the  name 
Red  Pyle  Game  is  used  here.  The  English  Club  Standards 
caU  these  fowls  Pyle  Games,  and  states  that  they  are  identical 
with  the  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  except  that  they  are  red 
and  white  instead  of  red  and  black. 

32.  Origin. — Red  Pyle  Game  fowls  originally  came  from 
crossing  the  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  and  the  White  Game 
varieties  and  selecting  and  mating  the  best  offspring. 

33.  Development. — The  development  of  the  Red  Pyle 
Game  has  been  gradual  and  persistent.  Formerly  all  of  the 
fowls  had  willow-colored  shanks  and  feet,  but  at  the  present 
time  only  yellow  beaks  and  shanks  are  permissible.  The 
modem  type  of  Red  Pyle  Game  has  been  made  by  careful 
selection  and  mating  for  shape  and  color. 

34.  History. — The  history  of  the  Red  Pyle  Game  fowls 
tells  of  years  of  persistent  work  to  drive  out  the  black  in  their 
plimiage,  to  change  it  to  white,  to  produce  yellow  shanks  and 
beaks,  and  to  establish  a  variety  color  in  the  male  of  pure  white 
and  red,  and  in  the  female  of  piire  white  and  salmon. 

35.  Description. — The  Red  Pyle  Game  males  have  a 
bright-orange  hackle.  According  to  the  English  Club  Stand- 
ards, the  back  and  saddle  plumage  is  a  rich  maroon;  as 
described  in  the  American  Standard,  it  is  red  shading  into  a 
light  orange.  The  secondaries  of  the  wings  are  white  on  the 
inner  edge  and  tips,  with  dark  chestnut  on  the  outer  edge, 
which  forms  rich-colored  wing  bays  when  the  wings  are  folded. 
The  rest  of  the  plumage  should  be  pure  white.  The  females 
have  a  white  body  color  throughout ;  the  neck  hackle  is  white, 
tinged  with  gold;  the  breast  is  a  rich  salmon;  the  eyes,  in  both 
males  and  females,  are  bright  red;  the  comb,  face,  wattles,  and 
ear  lobes  are  red;  and  the  shanks  and  toes  are  yellow.     Other- 


§  10  GAME  FOWLS  479 

wise  true-colored  Pyle  Game  fowls  have  many  or  few  spots  of 
black  scattered  through  their  plumage,  and  others  have  so 
little  red  in  their  plumage  as  to  give  them,  among  amateurs, 
the  grade  of  Lemon,  Light,  and  White  Pyle  fowls.  None  of 
them,  however,  are  worthy  of  consideration  except  the  rich 
red  and  white  known  as  Red  Pyle  Game. 

36.  Mating. — Two  methods  are  practiced  in  mating  Red 
Pyle  Game  fowls.  Breeding  by  the  Standard,  as  it  is  called, 
refers  to  the  mating  of  males  and  females  both  closely  approach- 
ing the  Standard  description  in  size,  shape,  and  color.  When- 
ever the  red  markings  of  the  offspring  lose  their  brilliancy, 
Black-Breasted  Red  Game  blood  must  be  bred  into  them. 
But  so  long  as  good  color  can  be  obtained  from  a  single  mating 
of  true  Red  Pyle  Game  fowls  this  will  be  the  most  satisfactory 
practice.  When  this  fails,  a  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  male, 
perfect  in  exhibition  color,  can  be  mated  with  Red  Pyle  Game 
females.  The  puUets  from  such  a  cross  almost  invariably  have 
willow-colored  shanks,  and  are  likely  to  have  a  good  breast 
color.  Both  the  males  and  the  females  produced  from  such  a 
cross  may  be  gradually  bred  into  the  strain  of  the  Red  Pyle 
Game;  in  this  way  color  will  be  strengthened  and  maintained. 

To  produce  the  most  beautifully  colored  Red  Pyle  Game 
cockerels,  a  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  male  with  clean,  clear, 
rich  color  on  the  back  and  wing  bows  should  be  mated  with  a 
Red  Pyle  Game  female  or  with  Red  Pyle  Game  females  that 
have  been  bred  from  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  fowls  and  that 
have  yeUow  shanks.  To  produce  good  males  and  the  finest  of 
females,  a  Red  Pyle  Game  male  that  has  been  bred  from  a 
Black-Breasted  Red  Game  male  mated  with  Red  Pyle  Game 
females  should  be  mated  with  good-colored  Red  Pyle  Game 
females.  Both  males  and  females  must  have  yellow  beaks, 
shanks,  and  toes.  Willow-colored  shanks  will  occur  frequently 
from  all  Red  Pyle  Game  matings,  and  this  must  be  overcome 
by  using  fowls  that  have  rich  golden  yellow  in  beak,  shanks, 
and  feet.  In  this  variety,  the  color  of  the  eyes  is  an  indica- 
tion of  the  color  of  the  plumage ;  light -red  or  cherry-colored  eyes 
indicate  a  softer  shade  of  plumage  than  eyes  of  a  darker  red. 


480  GAME  FOWLS  §  10 


WHITE  GA3£E 

37.  Origin. — ^Whether  Wliite  Game  fowls  have  always 
existed  or  whether  they  came  as  sports  from  some  of  the  dark- 
plimiaged  varieties  or  from  the  Red  Pyle  Game  fowls  is  not 
important.  The  White  Game  as  they  now  exist,  were  made  by 
selecting  white-plumaged  game  fowls  of  imusual  size  and  sta- 
tion and  mating  and  remating  them,  having  in  mind  exquisite 
proportions,  beautiful  plimiage,  and  rich,  golden-yellow  beaks, 
shanks,  and  feet. 

38.  Development. — The  White  Game  fowls  have  been 
bred  in  such  small  numbers  that  they  cannot  be  said  to  have 
been  developed  other  than  as  a  novelty  for  the  "any  other 
variety"  classes. 

39.  History. — Other  than  that  they  have  been  bred  of  a 
quality  acceptable  as  a  Standard  variety,  the  White  Game 
fowls  have  no  history. 

40.  Description. — ^White  Game  fowls  have  yellow  beaks, 
shanks,  and  feet;  and  red  eyes,  comb,  face,  wattles,  and  ear 
lobes.     The  plumage  should  be  piure  white  throughout. 

41.  Mating. — The  rule  for  mating  White  Game  fowls  is 
to  select  for  breeders  both  males  and  females  that  have  as 
nearly  as  possible  perfect  game  type,  pure  white  plumage, 
and  shanks  and  feet  of  a  rich  golden  yellow.  The  offspring 
from  such  fowls  should  be  mated,  selected  and  remated, 
care  being  taken  always  to  select  fowls  with  true  game  char- 
acters and  pure  white  plumage. 


WHEATEN  GAME 

42.  In  the  production  of  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  fowls 
for  exhibition,  female  offspring  of  pecuHar  color  known  as  a 
Wlieaten  Game  will  sometimes  be  produced.  These  fowls  were 
formerly  considered  valuable  for  the  production  of  males  of  the 
highest  quality.  Of  recent  years,  they  have  been  so  little  con- 
sidered that  but  few  of  them  are  kept.     One  of  these  females, 


§  10  GAME  FOWLS  481 

known  as  the  Red  Wheaten  Game,  has  willow-colored  shanks, 
a  golden  or  a  lemon-colored  hackle,  very  slightly  striped  with 
black;  breast  and  thighs,  a  light  fawn  or  cream  color;  body 
color  and  secondaries,  a  pale  cinnamon  or  wheaten ;  and  a  tail, 
black,  except  the  top  feathers,  which  match  the  body  color. 
Another  offspring  from  the  Black-Breasted  Red  Game,  known 
as  the  Silver  Wlieaten  Game,  has  shanks  of  the  same  color 
as  the  Red  Wheaten  hen;  silvery-white  neck  hackle,  slightly 
striped  with  black;  breast  and  thighs,  pale  fawn  or  light  buff; 
body  color  and  secondaries,  a  pale  cinnamon;  and  a  tail,  black, 
except  the  top  feathers,  which  match  the  body  color.  The 
Silver  Wheaten  Game  fowls  are  used  for  breeding  with  males 
of  the  Duckwing  Game  variety. 


CORNISH  GAME 


DARK  CORNISH  GAME 

43.  As  early  as  1820,  a  breed  of  fowls  known  as  Cornlsli 
Game  was  bred  about  Devonshire  and  Cornwall,  England. 
The  fowls  were  bred  for  fighting  more  than  for  any  other  pttr- 
pose.  They  were  made  by  intermingling  Malay  and  Aseel 
with  Pit  Game  fowls  of  that  locality,  selection  being  made 
of  the  Earl  Derby  type,  which  had  yellow  shanks  and  feet. 
Later,  these  fowls  were  improved  for  market.  Following  this, 
they  were  developed  into  exhibition  fowls  and  named  Indian 
Game.  This  name  is  retained  in  the  English  Club  Standards. 
When  first  admitted  to  the  American  Standard  they  were  called 
Cornish  Indian  Game.  In  the  American  Standard  of  1910  they 
are  called  Cornish  fowls. 

44.  Origin. — The  origin  of  the  modem  type  of  exhibition 
Cornish  Game  fowls  was  undoubtedly  from  the  best  of  the 
Cornish  Game,  by  mating  and  remating,  and  then  selecting 
and  crossing  with  the  Aseel.  Crosses  were  also  made  with 
Malay  and  other  types  of  game  fowls.  The  claim  is  made  that 
the  originator.  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  Gilbert,  of  England,  crossed 


482  GAME  FOWLS  §  10 

a  Red  Aseel  imported  from  India  with  English  Black-Breasted 
Red  Game  fowls  of  the  Lord  Derby  type.  Later,  crosses  were 
made  with  Black  Sumatras  and  with  what  were  known  as 
Pheasant  Malay  fowls,  the  last-mentioned  cross  being  made 
to  improve  the  plumage  color  in  the  females.  As  they  now 
exist,  they  have  originated  from  selecting  and  mating  the  best 
that  could  be  chosen  from  the  several  types  that  were  devel- 
oped from  the  numerous  early  crosses. 

45.  Development. — The  Cornish  Game  was  made  in  its 
development.  The  most  expert  fanciers  of  England  and 
America  have  devoted  years  to  this  work.  Marked  attention 
was  given  to  amalgamating  all  their  desirable  exhibition  fea- 
tures into  a  breed  of  fowls  that  combine  size,  beauty,  useful- 
ness, and  attractive  show  qualities.  This  has  been  accom- 
plished by  a  rigid  selection  for  size,  shape,  color,  and  markings. 

46.  History. — The  history  of  Cornish  Game  fowls  begins 
with  the  appearance  under  the  name  of  Indian  Game  fowls  in 
the  show  rooms  of  England  about  1870.  Aseel  Game  fowls 
brought  from  India  and  the  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  fowls 
were  used  for  crossing  with  the  best  Cornish  Games.  It  has 
been  claimed,  but  not  verified,  that  the  rich  markings  of  both 
males  and  females  have  been  intensified  by  the  use  of  Black 
Simiatra  and  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  fowls.  Although  in 
the  females  the  narrow  pencilings;  of  lustrous  black  were  called 
for  in  the  back,  breast,  and  body,  but  few  of  them  had 
such  markings. 

47.  Bescrlption. — A  complete  description  of  the  Cor- 
nish, or  Indian,  Game  fowls  is  taken  from  the  Welsh  United 
Game  Club  Standard,  which  describes  the  head  and  neck  as 
rather  long  and  thick;  the  eyebrows,  broad  and  square,  giv- 
ing a  cruel  expression;  the  beak,  rather  short,  stout  and  well 
ctirved;  the  eyes,  fuU  and  bold;  the  pea  combs,  close  fitting; 
the  face,  smooth  and  fine  in  texture;  the  ear  lobes,  small  and 
neat;  the  wattles,  smooth  and  free  from  wrinkles;  the  neck,  of 
medium  length  and  slightly  arched;  the  body,  thick  set  and 
broad,  with  prominent  shoulder  butts;  the  breast,  wide,  deep, 
prominent,  and  nicely  rounded  off;  the  back,  fairly  flat,  gradu- 


§  10  GAME  FOWLS  483 

ally  tapering  from  the  shoulders  to  the  tail;  the  wings,  short, 
muscular,  and  well  tucked  up;  the  tail,  of  mediimi  length  and 
tight  feathered;  the  secondaries,  or  coverts,  a  trifle  narrow; 
the  legs  and  feet,  of  medium  length,  strong,  and  thick;  the  toes, 
four  in  nujuber,  long,  strong,  and  straight;  the  general  shape 
and  carriage,  upright,  commanding,  and  courageous,  with 
sloping  back  and  tail  carried  well  down  at  an  angle  of  about 
45  degrees.  In  general  appearance  they  are  broad,  muscular, 
active,  vigorous,  and  sprightly. 

The  plumage  of  the  male  is  close,  narrow,  and  hard.  The 
females  conform  in  a  general  way  with  the  males,  except  that 
the  tail  is  short  and  fine,  each  feather  nicely  overlapping.  The 
tail  is  carried  well  down,  but  is  sUghtly  higher  than  the  tail  of 
the  male.  The  general  shape  and  carriage  is  upright,  com- 
manding, and  vigorous,  and  the  back  is  sloping.  The  gen- 
eral appearance  of  the  female  is  broad  and  muscular,  active 
and  sprightly. 

Adult  males  weigh  8  pounds  and  upwards;  adult  females 
weigh  6  pounds  and  upwards. 

The  color  of  the  Dark  Cornish  Game  of  both  sexes  is  as  fol- 
lows: Beak,  horn  color  or  yellow,  with  a  mixture  of  both; 
eyes,  varying  from  pale  yellow  to  pale  red;  comb,  face,  wattles, 
and  ear  lobes,  a  brilliant  red;  shanks  and  toes,  a  rich  yellow  or 
orange  color.  In  the  cock,  the  head  is  of  a  rich,  glossy,  green- 
ish black ;  the  neck  hackle,  back,  saddle  hackle,  and  shoulders, 
a  rich,  glossy  greenish  black,  intermingled  with  rich  bay  or 
chestnut;  the  wing  bows,  the  same  mixture  of  rich,  glossy, 
greenish  black  with  rich  bay  or  chestnut ;  the  wing  bars,  a  rich, 
glossy,  greenish  black;  the  secondaries,  a  rich  bay  or  chestnut 
on  the  outer  web  and  a  rich  black  or  green  on  the  inner  web 
and  end  of  feathers,  only  the  rich  bay  or  chestnut  showing 
when  the  wing  is  folded,  thus  forming  a  triangular  patch  of 
wing  bay;  the  primaries,  black  with  a  short,  narrow  fringe  of 
light  chestnut  color  on  the  outer  web;  the  breast,  under  body, 
and  thigh  plumage,  a  rich,  glossy,  greenish  black;  and  the  tail, 
sickles,  and  coverts,  a  rich,  glossy,  greenish  black. 

In  the  female,  the  head  is  a  rich,  glossy,  greenish  black;  the 
neck  hackle  commences  with  a  rich,  dark  green,  but  as  the 


484  GAME  FOWLS  §  10 

feathers  broaden,  the  center  of  the  feathers  is  chestnut  color 
edged  with  a  green  border;  the  breast  is  a  rich  bay  or  chestnut 
brown,  every  feather  edged  with  green,  and  where  the  size  of 
the  breast  feathers  permits,  they  should  be  double  laced;  the 
abdomen  and  thigh  feathers  are  the  same,  though  less  dis- 
tinctly marked;  the  back,  saddle,  shoulder,  and  wing  plumage 
is  similar  in  markings  to  the  breast,  only  much  more  distinct, 
especially  on  the  shoulders  and  wing  bows;  the  wing  bars  are 
heavier  in  lacing;  the  secondaries,  on  the  lower  or  visible  web, 
are  a  rich  bay  or  chestnut,  edged  with  a  narrow  strip  of  green, 
and  the  inner  web  is  black;  and  the  tail  and  tail  coverts  are  a 
rich  bay  or  chestnut,  the  ground  color  being  clear  and  dis- 
tinctly laced  with  green. 

One  English  Standard  describes  the  ground  color  of  females 
as  chestnut  brown,  nut  brown,  or  mahogany  brown.  It  also 
states  that  triple  lacing,  though  beautiful,  is  not  desirable  and 
may  be  due  to  the  influence  of  Dark  Brahma  blood.  The 
description  of  the  Cornish  fowls  in  the  American  Standard  con- 
forms in  a  general  way  to  that  of  the  Indian  Game  fowls  in  the 
EngHsh  Standard.  In  the  American  Standard,  the  color,  which 
approaches  mahogany,  is  called  bay,  and  pencilings  of  lustrous 
black  are  reqmred  to  follow  the  shape  of  the  web  of  the 
feather.  The  eyes  are  preferred  of  pearl  color  in  the  Ameri- 
can Standard,  but  eyes  varying  from  pale  yeUow  to  pale  red 
are  admissible  in  the  English  Club  Standards. 

A  later  color  description  for  females  is  groimd  color  of  a  rich 
bay  or  chestnut,  each  feather  edged  with  a  rich  beetle  green; 
the  best  fowls  have  double  lacing  similar  to  the  markings  of 
the  Partridge  Cochin.  The  neck  hackle  is  black  at  the  top, 
shading  into  bay,  and  edged  with  black;  the  back  and  wings 
are  distinctly  laced;  the  wing  bows  are  heavily  laced. 

48.  Mating. — ^When  mating  fowls  for  the  production  of 
exhibition  Cornish  Game  fowls,  the  most  nearly  perfect  form 
as  'described  must  be  selected  in  both  males  and  females. 
Dependence  can  be  placed  in  large,  well-proportioned  females 
Laving  heavy  thighs  and  strong  bone  formation  in  the  shanks 
and  feet.     Only  those  fully  understanding  the  proper  proper- 


§  10  GAME  FOWLS  485 

tions  of  a  Cornish  Game  fowl  can  select  breeders  from  them 
for  producing  exhibition  fowls.  Females  lacking  in  body  for- 
mation are  not  likely  to  produce  offspring  of  much  value. 
When  the  Malay  traits  are  dominant,  offspring  of  a  Malay 
type  are  likely  to  follow;  but  the  breed  characters  of  the  Aseel 
should  dominate.  The  males  selected  must  have  the  massive 
body  formation  peculiar  to  the  Aseel  or  they  wiU  not  answer 
for  breeding  purposes.  The  color  and  markings,  although  sec- 
ond in  importance,  must  be  as  described  in  the  Standard;  oth- 
erwise, there  is  likely  to  be  a  confusion  of  color  in  the  offspring. 
The  color  in  well-bred  Cornish  Game  fowls  is  usually  good. 
Males  of  good  color  are  likely  to  come  naturally  from  well- 
bred  stock,  but  great  care  and  attention  must  be  given  to 
selecting  color  matings  to  produce  exhibition  pullets. 

Both  sexes  can  be  bred  from  the  same  matings,  but  it  is  best 
to  use  heavily  laced  hens  for  the  production  of  males,  and  those 
of  a  lighter  ground  color  and  narrower  lacing  for  the  produc- 
tion of  pullets.  This  has  led  to  separate  matings ;  some  breeders 
select  cockerels  with  light  red  on  the  wing  bows  and  distinct 
red  lacing  in  hackle  and  saddle  plimiage  to  produce  pullets. 
This  line  of  mating  should  be  about  the  same  that  is  followed 
for  the  production  of  color  in  Partridge  Cochin  fowls;  that  is, 
to  use  the  males  most  distinctly  marked  with  chestnut  bro-wn 
throughout  the  body  plimiage  for  mating  with  the  best  penciled 
females  for  producing  pullets,  and  the  darker  males  and  females 
for  producing  cockerels. 


WHITE  CORNISH  GAME 

49.  Origin. — The  White  Indian  Game,  now  called  the 
White  Cornisli  Game,  originated  from  much  the  same  soiirce 
as  the  Dark  Cornish.  Evidently  the  fowls  were  bred  by  inter- 
mingling the  blood  of  the  White  Malay,  the  White  Aseel,  and 
other  white  game  fowls. 

50.  Development. — ^White  Cornish  Game  fowls  are  of 
recent  development.  At  first  they  were  almost  identical  in 
form  with  the  White  Malay  fowls,  which  led  to  the  belief  that 
they  came  originally  from.  India.     Their  recent  development, 


486  GAME  FOWLS  §  10 

however,  has  resulted  from  crosses  made  with  White  Aseel, 
and  from  selecting  the  best  so  produced  and  breeding  them 
for  the  mammoth  proportions  that  have  been  acquired  in  the 
dark  variety. 

51.  History. — The  history  of  the  White  Indian  Game, 
or  Cornish,  fowls,  describes  their  imcertain  existence  up  to  the 
time  of  their  admission  to  the  American  Standard  of  1898. 
Since  that  time  they  have  been  brought  to  the  attention  of 
poultrymen  through  having  been  improved  in  form  and  gen- 
eral make-up,  and  because  they  have  been  exhibited  at  some 
of  the  largest  poultry  shows.  However,  they  have  not  as  yet 
acqmred  the  prominence  of  the  dark  variety. 

52.  Description. — The  general  outline  for  breed  forma- 
tion is  the  same  in  the  White  as  in  the  Dark  Cornish  fowls, 
the  only  difference  being  in  plumage  color.  The  Standard 
demands  that  the  entire  plumage,  including  the  quills,  shall  be 
pure  white.  Why  so  rigid  a  demand  has  been  made  for  plu- 
mage color  is  not  explained ;  these  fowls  do  not  naturally  have 
plumage  so  clean  and  pure  as  the  Wyandottes  and  some  other 
white-plimiaged  fowls. 

53.  Mating. — To  improve  the  quality  of  the  White  Cor- 
nish Game  fowls,  marked  attention  must  be  given  to  selecting 
fowls  that  possess  the  body  proportions  of  the  Aseel  Game  fowls. 
In  addition  to  this,  the  fowls  must  have  clean,  pure,  white 
plimiage  and  yellow  shanks  and  skin.  Pearl,  or  Aseel,  eyes 
are  a  requirement  for  these  fowls,  and  shovdd  be  bred  for 
with  care.  

WmTE-LACED  RED  CORNISH  GAME 

54.  A  variety  of  Cornish  known  as  the  White-Laced.  Red 
Cornisli  Game  fowls  was  admitted  to  the  American  Stand- 
ard of  1910.  This  variety  was  originated  by  W.  H.  Card,  of 
Manchester,  Connecticut. 

55.  Origin. — Mr.  Card  states  that  in  forming  this  new 
variety  he  intermingled  Shamo-Japanese  Game  and  the  Dark 
Cornish  Game  fowls  and  also  fowls  of  a  Brahma-Cornish  cross. 


§  10  GAME  FOWLS  487 

The  females  from  such  crosses  were  mated  to  a  White  Wyan- 
dotte male  and  the  best  offspring  were  mated,  remated,  and 
inbred  to  intensify  color  and  markings  and  to  obtain,  as  far 
as  possible,  Cornish  Game  breed  characters. 

56.  Development. — The  development  of  the  White- 
Laced  Red  Cornish  has  been  left  almost  entirely  with  the 
originator,  who  has  continued  to  develop  them  along  the  same 
lines  as  he  followed  in  making  them. 

57.  History.— The  history  of  the  White-Laced  Red  Cor- 
nish Game  fowls  has  been  largely  given  in  their  origin.  They 
have  not  been  developed  with  such  distinctive  Cornish  Game 
breed  characters  as  to  stamp  them  as  such  at  sight.  They  have 
been  unusually  favored  by  the  standard  makers,  who  have  not 
only  admitted  them  as  standard  fowls  but  have  illustrated 
them  with  as  much  care  as  the  other  varieties. 

58.  Description. — The  White-Laced  Red  Cornish  Game 
fowls  should  have  the  same  breed  characters  and  body  forma- 
tion as  fowls  of  the  other  varieties  of  the  Cornish  Game,  and 
in  color  and  markings  they  should  be  almost  identical  with  the 
Buff  Laced  Polish,  the  main  difference  being  that  there  is  a 
deeper  shade  of  color  in  the  Cornish  than  in  the  Buff  Laced 
PoHsh.  The  standard  calls  for  rich,  bright-red  surface  color, 
with  each  feather  in  every  section  except  the  tail  completely  and 
delicately  laced  with  white;  the  tail  should  be  white  with  a 
red  shaft  in  each  feather.  Not  many  of  them,  however,  are 
produced  that  have  quality  equal  to  this.  The  eyes,  shanks, 
feet,  and  beak  should  be  yellow.  The  body  color  of  both  males 
and  females  should  be  a  rich,  bright  red,  laced  with  white;  they 
should  have  small  pea  combs  of  regular  formation. 

59.  Mating. — Only  the  best  White-Laced  Red  Cornish 
Game  fowls  that  can  be  selected  should  be  mated.  The  breeder 
should  have  continually  in  mind  a  selection  of  proper  Cornish 
Game  breed  characters,  with  color  and  markings  as  described 
for  them. 


488  GAME  FOWLS  8 10 


MALAY  GAME 

60.  Origin. — The  Malay  Game  fowls  are  supposed  to 
have  descended  from  the  Great  Malay,  or  Kulm,  fowls  of 
India,  which  are  supposed  to  have  descended  from  the  Gigantic 
Cock,  previously  described.  Whether  the  original  Malay,  or 
Kulm,  fowl  or  the  Aseel  were  first  will  probably  never  be 
known. 

61.  Development. — The  fanciers  of  England  have  devel- 
oped the  Malay  fowls  into  exhibition  Malay  Game  fowls  and, 
although  they  are  recognized  in  the  American  Standard,  they 
are  seldom  seen  in  America.  The  wicked  disposition  of  the 
Malay  fowls  has  prevented  them  from  becoming  popular. 

62.  History. — The  early  history  of  the  Malay  is  uncer- 
tain, there  being  a  question  as  to  whether  the  Malay  or  the 
Aseel  was  first.  As  a  modem  breed,  the  Malay  Game  fowls 
have  been  greatly  changed  within  the  last  50  years.  They 
were  formerly  uneven  in  color  and  markings,  and  the  type  was 
different  from  that  of  the  present.  Beginning  with  1880,  an 
effort  was  made,  without  much  success,  to  advance  the  Malay 
Game  fowls  to  a  more  desirable  position  as  exhibition  fowls, 
but  only  a  few  attractive  specimens  have  been  seen  in  recent 
years. 

63.  Description. — In  carriage,  the  Malay  Game  fowls 
are  upright.  Prior  to  the  make-up  of  the  modem  exhibition 
game  fowls,  they  were  more  leggy  in  formation  than  any  exhi- 
bition poultry,  but  now  that  the  modem  exhibition  game  fowls 
have  been  made  such  long-legged  fowls  the  Malays  are  con- 
sidered to  have  legs  of  moderate  length.  The  body  formation 
of  the  Malay  Game  fowls  is  compact  and  heavy;  they  are 
strongly  built  and  have  great  strength  in  the  thighs  and  shanks. 
They  have  the  skull  formation  peculiar  to  the  Asiatic  fowls. 
Overhanging  skulls,  sunken  eyes,  yellow  shanks,  and  skin  are 


.^/ 


§  10  GAME  FOWLS  489 

all  characters  of  these  fowls.  Only  the  Black-Breasted  Red 
Malay  variety  is  recognized  in  the  American  Standard.  Orig- 
inally there  were  many  varieties,  the  most  plentiful  fowls  being 
those  of  the  Red  Malay,  the  Black-Breasted  Red  Malay,  and 
the  White  Malay  varieties.  The  plumage  color  of  the  Black- 
Breasted  Red  Malay  Game  fowls  is  described  in  the  American 
Standard  as  much  the  same  as  that  of  the  Black-Breasted  Red 
Game  fowls,  except  that  the  colors  are  not  so  well  defined. 
The  fowls  rarely  conform  to  their  color  description.  This  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  they  have  never  been  bred  to  any  extent 
for  color  and  that,  as  now  kept,  what  are  known  as  wheaten 
colors  are  bred  with  them,  and  variety  colors  not  recognized 
as  standard  will  appear  from  such  matings. 

The  English  Club  Standards  for  Malay  Game  fowls  describes 
the  color  of  the  eyes  as  pearl,  daw,  or  yellow;  the  beak,  yellow 
or  horn  color;  the  comb,  face,  throat,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes, 
brilliant  red;  and  the  shanks,  rich  yellow.  In  the  Black- 
Breasted  Red  Game  variety,  the  head  and  hackle  of  the  males 
should  be  a  rich,  dark  red;  the  wing  bars,  glossy  and  greenish 
black;  the  secondaries,  bright  bay  on  the  outer  web,  and  black 
on  the  inner  web  and  the  ends  of  the  feathers,  the  bright  bay 
showing  when  the  wing  is  closed;  the  primaries,  black  on  the 
inner  web  with  red  edging  on  the  outside ;  the  breast  and  under 
parts,  glossy  black,  frequently  mixed  with  reddish  brown; 
and  the  tail  and  tail  coverts,  greenish  black. 

The  body  color  of  females  are  any  shade  of  cinnamon  or 
wheaten  color;  the  hackle  is  a  dark  purplish  shade,  or  partridge 
marked.  The  plumage  should  be  free  from  ticks,  spangles, 
or  penciling.  More  complete  information  relative  to  varieties 
will  be  found  in  the  discussion  of  the  Malay  Bantam  fowls. 

Standard  weights  in  America  for  Malay  fowls  are:  Cocks, 
9  pounds;  cockerels  and  hens,  7  pounds;  pullets,  5  pounds. 
According  to  the  English  Standard,  males  weigh  11  pounds; 
females,  9  pounds. 

64.  Mating. — In  mating  Malay  Game  fowls  for  the  pro- 
duction of  exhibition  fowls,  the  best  that  can  be  obtained  should 
be  selected  and  mated,  and  the  offspring  of  these  mated  for 


490  GAME  FOWLS  §  10 

improvement  in  shape,  color,  and  markings.  Those  with 
markings  as  nearly  as  possible  like  the  markings  of  the  Black- 
Breasted  Red  Game  fowls  should  always  be  chosen.  Both  male 
and  female  Malay  Game  fowls,  however,  are  darker  in  plumage 
color  than  the  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  fowls,  and  cinnamon 
brown  occurs  frequently  throughout  the  plumage  of  the  female. 


BLACK  SUMATRA  GAME 

65.  Origin. — Many  claims  have  been  made  relative  to  the 
origin  of  the  Black  Sumatra  Game  fowls,  none  of  which  is 
supported  by  sufficient  evidence  to  establish  it  as  trustworthy. 
There  seems  to  be  no  authority  for  any  of  the  statements 
relative  to  their  origin  except  that  Black  Sumatra  Game 
fowls  were  brought  from  the  island  of  Sumatra  to  America 
and  named  for  the  locality  from  which  they  came. 

66.  Development. — The  development  of  Black  Sumatra 
Game  fowls  from  an  unfinished  type  of  fowls  into  their  present 
beauty  of  form  and  feather  has  been  accomplished  largely  by 
Nelson  A.  Wood,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  of  Washing- 
ton, District  of  Columbia.  Before  other  fanciers  had  given  any 
attention  to  these  fowls  Mr.  Wood  had  developed  them  into 
the  present  type. 

67.  History. — The  Black  Sumatra  Game  fowls  we're 
brought  to  America  from  Oriental  countries.  The  actual  date 
of  the  first  importation  is  not  known.  Fowls  similar  to  them 
were  mentioned  in  1847.  About  1885,  their  development  was 
begim  and  they  were  selected  and  bred  until  they  became  such 
attractive  exhibition  fowls  that  others  began  to  breed  them; 
since  their  development  by  Mr.  Wood,  they  have  been  scat- 
tered throughout  the  world.  No  other  fowls  will  reproduce 
more  true  to  breed  characters  than  the  pure-bred  Black 
Sumatra  fowls.  A  mistake  was  made  some  years  ago  when 
an  attempt  was  made  to  improve  them  by  a  cross  with  a 
black  game  fowl  from  India.  This  injured  the  quality  of  all 
offspring  from  this  cross.  The  Black  Sumatra  Game  fowls  have 
received  marked  attention  from  the  English  fanciers. 


§  10  GAME  FOWLS  491 

68.  Description. — The  Black  Siimatra  Game  fowl  has 
a  formation  peculiar  to  itself;  this  is  more  like  the  general  for- 
mation of  the  Yokohama  fowls  than  like  that  of  fowls  of  any- 
other  breed  or  variety.  The  males  have  long,  flowing  tails, 
but  not  so  long  as  the  tail  feathering  of  the  Yokohamas;  the 
females  also  have  tails  of  considerable  length.  Some  of  the 
older  females  have  the  uppermost  feathers  extending  beyond 
the  other  main  tail  feathers,  with  a  slight  downward  curve 
at  the  point  of  the  feathers.  The  plimiage  of  both  males 
and  females  is  a  rich,  glossy  black,  glistening  with  sheen. 
No  other  fowl  has  more  brilliancy  of  plmnage  than  the  Black 
Simiatra.  Black  Sumatra  fowls  should  have  the  triple,  or  pea, 
comb,  but  some  occur  with  the  liimp,  or  strawberry,  comb 
like  the  Malay.  The  eyes  are  dark.  The  comb,  face,  and 
wattles  are  described  in  the  Standard  as  purple,  but  in  some 
of  the  best  fowls  the  face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  are  dark  red; 
gypsy  color  in  the  face  and  head  is  preferred  in  England.  The 
shanks  and  toes  should  be  black  or  nearly  so;  originally,  they 
were  dull,  or  leaden,  black,  but  this  has  been  almost  bred  out 
of  them;  an  olive  color  in  the  shanks  and  feet  is  preferred  in 
England. 

69.  Mating. — In  mating  Black  Sumatra  fowls  for  the  pro- 
duction of  exhibition  offspring,  care  must  be  taken  in  the  selec- 
tion for  head  points.  The  comb  should  be  small,  triple  in  for- 
mation, and  should  fit  close  to  the  head;  the  wattles  should  be 
very  small  in  the  males  and  scarcely  perceptible  in  the  females; 
a  rich  red  is  preferred  to  purple  in  the  comb,  face,  wattles,  and 
ear  lobes;  the  plumage  throughout,  including  the  quills  and 
under  fluff,  should  be  black,  the  surface  glistening  with  bril- 
liant sheen;  and  the  shanks  and  feet  should  be  black,  smooth, 
and  shiny.  The  greater  length  of  tail  and  tail  furnishings 
the  males  have  the  better  they  will  be  for  producing  beautiful 
offspring.  The  tails  of  the  females  should  be  long  and  extended ; 
those  that  are  strong  in  the  male  line  of  breeding  show  the 
influence  of  the  sickle  in  their  uppermost  tail  feathers;  those 
having  tail  feathers  of  equal  length  are  considered  best  for 
producing  females. 


492  GAME  FOWLS  §  10 


NON-STANDARD  VARIETIES 


ASEEL  GAME 

70.  Origin. — The  more  the  origin  of  poultry  is  investi- 
gated, the  more  reason  appears  for  the  behef  that  there  was  a 
large  original  fowl  from  which  the  Asiatic  breeds  have  descended. 
The  natiiral  color  of  the  shanks  and  skin,  the  head,  comb,  and 
body  formation  of  the  Aseel  fowls  leads  to  the  conclusion  that 
perhaps  they  are  in  the  direct  line  through  which  all  large  fowls 
have  descended.  In  discussing  the  question  of  whether  the 
Aseel  should  be  regarded  as  the  ancestor  of  the  Malay  type  of 
fowls  or  whether  it  has  been  developed  by  long  and  assiduous 
care  in  breeding,  Lewis  Wright  states :  "The  Aseel  is  of  another 
character,  and  there  can  be  little  doubt  that  the  birds  whose 
battles  are  alluded  to  in  the  Institutes  of  Menu,  1000  B.  C, 
if  not  the  Aseel  as  now  known,  were  at  least  their  ancestors." 
An  incident  that  may  be  referred  to  in  this  connection  occurred 
during  the  time  of  Socrates,  who  was  bom  469  B.  C.  and  was 
poisoned  about  400  B.  C,  by  order  of  the  judges  of  Athens. 
His  last  words,  as  reported  by  Plato  were:  "Crito,  we  owe  a 
cock  to  Esculapius;  pay  it,  therefore,  and  do  not  neglect  it." 
Chickens  are  frequently  mentioned  by  Aristophanes,  who 
lived  about  that  time.  The  most  probable  solution  is  found 
in  the  theory  that  the  Aseels  were  the  original  game  cocks  of 
which  mention  was  made  by  the  early  writers,  and  which  have 
been  kept  piu-e  and  untainted  by  the  princes  of  India,  who 
valued  them  for  their  pugnacious  qualities,  and  who  frequently 
held  them  up  to  youths  as  examples  of  courage  and  self- 
protection. 

71.  Development. — It  can  scarcely  be  said  that  the 
Aseel  has  been  developed  to  any  extent.  The  fowls  have 
been  kept  and  bred  for  centuries  by  persons  who  like  to  keep 


§  10  GAME  FOWLS  493 

the  most  pugnacious  fowls  that  could  be  produced.  Since 
they  have  come  into  notice  'as  exhibition  fowls,  they  have 
been  bred  only  in  limited  numbers  and  with  more  care  than 
formerly.  What  development  has  been  brought  about  has 
been  by  a  few  English  fanciers. 

72.  History. — The  early  history  of  the  Aseel,  like  that  of 
the  Malay,  is  largely  conjecture.  Prior  to  the  coming  of  the 
Asiatic  breeds  from  their  native  land,  Malay  fowls  were  plen- 
tiful in  some  parts  of  England.  These  were  largely  displaced 
through  the  coming  of  the  Brahma  and  the  Cochin  fowls. 
Later,  Aseel  fowls  were  brought  from  India,  and  the  claim  was 
made  that  until  that  country  was  brought  under  British  rule 
the  fowls  had  been  carefully  guarded  by  the  people  of  India 
to  prevent  their  general  distribution.  Since  that  time,  Aseels 
have  been  distributed  in  small  numbers  throughout  England 
and  America,  and  a  standard  for  them  has  been  established  by 
the  fanciers  of  England.  When  it  is  remembered  that  the 
word  Aseel  is  an  Indian,  or  Hindu,  adjective  meaning  high 
bom  or  aristocratic,  it  may  readily  be  seen  that  the  term  might 
originally  have  been  applied  to  any  type  of  fowl  that  would 
meet  the  requirements  of  such  a  description. 

73.  Description. — The  Enghsh  Club  Standards  describes 
the  Aseel  as  follows :  General  characters  of  the  cock :  Head, 
short  and  small  though  broad  between  the  eyes  and  jaw,  and 
thick  at  the  base;  beak  very  strong,  fine  grained,  and  some- 
what short;  lower  mandible,  thick  and  slightly  curved;  eyes, 
bold,  prominent,  and  brilliant,  set  back  in  the  head;  comb, 
triple,  or  what  is  termed  a  pea  comb,  the  smaller  the  better, 
very  hard  and  horny;  face,  fine  of  texture  though  hard  in  sub- 
stance; ear  lobes,  as  small  as  possible;  no  wattles;  neck,  round, 
hard,  muscular,  and  powerful,  of  mediimi  length  and  uniform 
width  throughout,  curved  slightly  at  the  back  and  seated 
between  high  shoulders;  throat,  clean  and  not  prominent  or 
fleshy;  breast,  wide,  short,  and  fiat,  carrying  no  fluff  and  almost 
naked  at  the  point  of  the  breastbone;  back,  broad  at  the  shoul- 
ders, short  and  quite  straight;  no  tendency  to  roach  back; 
stem,  narrow  in  comparison  with  the  shoulders,  but  thick  and 


494  GAME  FOWLS  §  10 

strong  at  the  root  of  the  tail;  wings,  strong,  short,  and  carried 
level,  standing  well  out  from  the  shotdders,  often  showing  a 
bare  spot  at  the  first  joint;  tail,  slightly  drooping  and  short, 
with  narrow,  hard  feathers;  sickles,  very  fine,  hard,  and 
short,  tapering  like  a  scimitar  to  within  3  or  4  inches  from  the 
ground — in  an  old  cock  the  sickles  will  appear  parti-colored, 
but  this  is  no  detriment;  coverts,  short,  spare,  very  hard,  and 
difficult  to  break;  thighs,  thick,  strong,  and  muscular,  set  well 
apart,  with  but  little  covering;  shanks,  short  but  not  dumpy, 
straight  and  quite  clean,  with  close,  regular  scales;  feet,  short, 
thick,  and  straight;  toe  nails,  the  same;  straight  hind  toe  to  be 
preferred,  though  what  is  termed  duck  footed  is  not  a  disqual- 
ification. The  general  shape  is  angular  throughout;  the  gen- 
eral appearance  is  not  too  gamy;  the  carriage  is  straight  and 
upright;  the  body  is  very  firm,  hard,  heavy,  and  evenly  bal- 
anced; and  the  plumage  is  hard,  close,  wiry,  and  devoid  of 
fluff. 

The  general  characters  of  the  hen  are  the  same  as  those  of 
the  male.  In  color,  both  sexes  are  described  as  having  beak 
and  legs  to  match,  though  of  no  definite  color.  The  eyes  are 
pearl,  all  shades  of  white,  pink,  and  yellow;  the  comb,  face, 
jaw,  and  throat  are  red.  No  final  standard  of  color  can  be 
given  for  Aseel  fowls,  as  they  are  of  no  fixed  hue.  The  prin- 
cipal colors  are  red,  black,  gray,  red  spangled,  black  spangled, 
yeUow,  and  white.  Cocks  are  mentioned  as  weighing  6  pounds; 
hens,  5  pounds. 

74.  Mating. — So  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the  pro- 
duction of  Aseel  fowls  as  to  make  it  impractical  to  suggest 
methods  of  mating,  except  to  state  that  it  is  advisable  to  sep- 
arate them  into  variety  colors  and  to  mate  and  select  for  a 
variety  color  that  will  reproduce  its  kind.  The  chief  value  of 
Aseel  Game  fowls  to  poiiltry  fanciers  is  in  the  benefits  derived 
from  their  use  in  the  upbuilding  of  breed  characters  in  the 
Cornish,  or  Indian,  Game  fowls. 


10  GAME  FOWLS  495 


OLD-ENGLISH  GAME 

75.  Since  the  beginning  of  the  Roman  Empire,  a  breed  of 
fowls  has  existed  that  was  formerly  bred  exclusively  for  fight- 
ing in  the  pit.  From  them  the  modem  type  of  Old-English 
Game  fowls  have  descended.  English  writers  trace  the  origin 
of  these  fowls  not  only  to  the  early  records  of  the  Chinese,  but 
to  the  Phenicians  as  well.  Some  authorities  have  expressed 
the  opinion  that  the  Assyrian  war  god,  Nergal,  was  symbolized 
by  a  fighting  cock.  Whether  or  not  these  statements  are  true 
is  imimportant,  but  the  facts  are  that  the  Old-English  Game  is 
the  nearest  approach  to  a  thoroughbred  fowl  of  any  known 
kind.  This  type  of  fowl  has  been  carried  into  every  part  of 
the  world  and  has  usually  closely  followed  the  explorer. 

76.  Origin. — The  Old-English  Game  fowl  is  a  descend- 
ant of  the  same  ancestors  as  the  Aseel,  the  Malay,  and  the 
fighting  cock  of  ancient  Rome. 

77.  Development. — The  development  of  the  Old-English 
Game  fowls  ceased  when  the  development  of  the  modem  type 
of  exhibition  game  fowls  began;  they  were  neglected  until 
about  1890,  when  a  disposition  was  vshown  to  bring  them  into 
prominence  for  exhibition. 

78.  History.— The  history  of  the  Old-EngHsh  Game  fowls 
began  with  their  employment  for  fighting  in  the  pit.  This 
practice  has  been  discontinued  by  process  of  law,  and  the  Old- 
English  Game  can  now  be  considered  only  as  an  exhibition 
fowl.  In  England,  a  standard  has  been  written  for  them,  but 
their  admission  to  the  American  Standard  has  been  continually 
denied.  When  shown,  they  are  judged  by  the  English  Club 
Standards,  but  in  the  show  room  of  America  the  distinction 
between  variety  colors  has  not  been  so  marked  as  in  England. 

79.  Description. — The  following  description  of  the  Old- 
English  Game  fowls  applies  to  the  varieties  accepted  as  stand- 
ard by  the  Game  Club  of  England.  In  the  males,  the  head  is 
of  medium  length  and  tapering ;  the  beak  is  slightly  curved  and 
strong  at  the  base;  the  eyes  are  large,  bright,  prominent,  full 


496  GAME  FOWLS  §  10 

of  expression,  and  alike  in  color;  the  comb  is  single,  small, 
upright,  of  fine  texture,  and  evenly  serrated;  the  face,  ear  lobes, 
and  wattles  are  fine  and  small.  It  is  customary  for  Old-English 
Game  fowls  to  be  dubbed,  as  described  for  exhibition  game 
fowls.  The  neck  should  be  long  and  very  strong  at  its  junc- 
ture with  the  body,  and  furnished  with  long  hackle  feathers 
that  cover  the  shoulders;  the  breast,  broad  and  well  devel- 
oped; the  back,  short,  flat,  and  tapering  to  the  tail;  the  shoul- 
ders, broad;  the  wings,  long,  full,  and  round;  the  primary,  or 
flight,  feathers,  extending  well  back  and  amply  protecting  the 
thighs;  the  sickle  feathers,  abimdant;  the  main  tail  feathers, 
broad,  curved,  with  hard,  strong,  quills,  and  carried  well  up, 
but  not  of  the  squirrel  type ;  the  thighs,  short,  thick,  and  mus- 
ctdar,  well  set  and  held  wide  apart;  the  shanks,  of  medium 
length,  finely  and  evenly  scaled,  and  round,  with  the  spvn  set 
low ;  the  toes,  four  on  each  foot,  long,  clean,  even,  and  spreading, 
the  back  toe  standing  well  out  and  flat  on  the  ground;  the  car- 
riage, bold  and  sprightly;  the  movements,  quick  and  graceful; 
the  plumage,  hard  and  glossy. 

With  the  exception  that  the  tail  is  inclined  to  fan  shape, 
the  general  characters  of  the  hen  are  similar  to  those  of  the 
male,  allowing  for  sexual  differences. 

The  weight  of  a  cock  is  from  5  to  6  pounds;  the  weight  of 
hens,  from  4  to  5  pounds. 

Many  variety  colors  are  recognized  in  the  English  Club 
Standards,  all  of  which  conform  in  a  general  way  to  the  color 
and  markings  of  all  breeds  of  game  fowls  and  their  sub  varieties ; 
and,  although  the  colors  are  not  so  imiform  and  distinct  or  the 
markings  so  well  divided  as  in  the  modem  type  of  exhibition 
game  fowls,  there  are  various  colors  in  them  which  form  beauti- 
ful combinations. 

Black-plumaged  fowls  are  found  in  almost  every  breed. 
Some  of  them  are  rich  glossy  black  and  others  are  dull  black. 
The  Standard  description  for  the  Black  Old-English  Game 
calls  for  black  or  very  dark  color  in  the  beak;  the  eyes,  comb, 
face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes,  red;  in  some,  the  comb,  face,  and 
wattles  are  very  dark  red,  approaching  purple.  The  legs  are 
described  as  round,  and  the  plimiage  as  glossy  black  throughout. 


§  10  GAME  FOWLS  497 

Another  variety  called  the  Brassy-Winged  Old-English  Game 
fowls  are  dark  or  more  usually  black,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  a  little  dark  lemon  color  on  the  shoulders  of  the  cock,  they 
are  similar  in  color  and  markings  to  the  Black-Breasted  Red 
Old-English  Game  fowls  of  the  Pit  Game  type;  they  are  not 
similar  to  the  exhibition  type  of  Black-Breasted  Red  Game 
fowls,  which  have  delicate  or  lighter  shades. 

The  Silver  Duckwing  Old-English  Game  fowls  should  have 
beak,  shanks,  and  toes  of  one  color;  this  is  usually  blue,  olive, 
white,  or  yellow.  The  eyes,  comb,  face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes 
should  be  red;  hackle,  back,  and  shoulder  of  the  cocks,  silver, 
free  from  dark  streaks;  breast  and  thighs,  black;  wing  bows, 
silvery  white ;  wing  bars,  steel  blue ;  secondaries,  white  on  outer 
web,  and  black  on  inner  web,  only  the  white  showing  when  the 
wing  is  folded;  primaries  and  ends  should  be  black;  tail,  black. 
The  hackle  of  the  hen  should  be  silver,  striped  with  black ; 
the  breast  and  thighs,  fawn;  the  back  and  wings,  dark  gray; 
the  tail,  gray  and  black. 

In  the  Red  Pyle  Old-English  Game  fowls,  the  beak,  shanks, 
and  feet  should  be  white,  yeUow,  or  willow;  the  eyes,  comb, 
face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes,  red;  the  hackle  of  the  cock,  orange 
red  or  chestnut  red;  the  back  and  shoulders,  deep  red;  the  wing 
secondaries,  bay  on  the  outer  web  and  white  on  the  inner  web, 
only  the  bay  showing  when  the  wing  is  closed;  the  rest  of  the 
plum.age  is  white.  The  hackle  of  the  female  should  be  chestnut, 
with  a  light  shade  toward  the  thighs ;  the  rest  of  her  plumage, 
white. 

In  the  Black-Breasted  Red  Old-English  Game  fowls,  the 
beak,  shanks,  and  toes  may  be  of  any  sound  self -color;  the 
eyes,  comb,  face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  should  be  red;  the  neck 
hackle  and  saddle  of  the  males,  orange  red,  free  from  dark 
feathers;  the  back  and  shoulder  coverts,  a  deep  red;  the  wing 
bows,  deep  red ;  the  wing  bars,  rich,  dark  blue ;  the  secondaries, 
bay;  the  primaries,  and  wing  ends,  breast,  and  under  parts, 
black;  the  tail,  black,  with  a  lustrous  green  gloss;  the  neck 
hackle  of  the  female,  golden  red,  streaked  with  black ;  the  breast 
and  thighs,  shaded  salmon  color;  and  the  tail,  black,  shaded 
with  brown. 


498  GAME  FOWLS  §  10 

The  Bright,  or  Ginger-Red,  Old-EngHsh  Game  has  beak, 
shanks,  and  toes  of  any  sound,  self -color;  the  eyes,  comb,  face, 
wattles,  and  ear  lobes  should  be  red;  neck  hackle  and  saddle 
of  the  male,  light  golden  red,  free  from  stripes;  back,  shoulder, 
and  wing  bows,  bright  red;  wing  bars,  rich,  dark  blue;  sec- 
ondaries, bay;  primaries  and  wing  ends,  black;  breast  and  under 
parts,  shaded  with  brown;  tail,  black  or  black  shaded  with 
brown;  neck  hackle  of  the  female,  golden  red;  breast  and  thighs, 
light  wheaten ;  back  and  wings,  a  darker  shade  of  wheaten  than 
the  breast ;  and  tail,  black  with  a  shading  of  brown. 

In  the  Brown-Red  Old-English  Game,  the  beak  and  shanks 
should  be  dark,  almost  black;  the  eyes,  dark;  the  comb,  face, 
wattles,  and  ear  lobes,  dark;  the  neck  hackle  in  the  males, 
orange  red,  streaked  with  black;  the  back  and  shotilders,  dark 
red;  the  wings,  dark  brown  or  black;  the  breast  and  thighs, 
brown,  or  brown  marked  and  shaded  with  black;  the  tail, 
black.  The  neck  hackle  of  the  female  is  black,  striped  or 
shaded  golden;  the  body  plumage,  black  or  of  a  uniform  brown 
mottle;  the  tail,  black. 

In  the  Spangled  Old-English  Game  fowls  will  be  foimd  some 
of  the  most  beautifiil  colors  and  markings  known  in  fowls. 
The  English  Game  Club  Standards  states  that  both  males 
and  females  have  beaks,  shanks,  and  feet  colored  alike,  usually 
mottled,  though  self -color,  or  solid  color,  is  permissible;  the 
eyes  should  be  red  or  dark  colored;  the  face,  comb,  wattles, 
and  ear  lobes,  bright  red;  the  pltmiage,  black,  red,  blue,  or 
buff,  spangled  with  white,  the  spangling  as  even  as  possible; 
the  tail  is  usually  black  and  white.  Some  of  the  Spangled 
Old-English  Game  fowls  are  marked  even  more  beautifully 
than  the  best  of  the  Jubilee  Orpington  fowls ;  others  are  spangled 
or  mottled  like  the  Java,  the  Ancona,  or  the  Houdan.  Almost 
every  kind  and  character  of  light  and  dark  markings  are  admis- 
sible in  them,  provided  the  intermingling  of  colors  is  attractive. 

The  White  Old-English  Game  fowls  are  rare  and  are  not 
usually  of  a  quality  equal  to  the  other  varieties.  In  both  the 
males  and  the  females  the  beak,  shanks,  and  toes  should  be 
white  or  yellow;  eyes,  red,  or  pearl;  face,  comb,  wattles,  and 
ear  lobes,  red;  plimiage,  pure  white  throughout. 


§  10  GAME  FOWLS  499 

In  all  varieties  of  Old-English  Game  fowls,  the  shanks  and 
feet  of  both  males  and  females  should  be  alike  in  color.  The 
eyes  in  fowls  of  the  different  varieties  are  of  uncertain  color; 
in  the  White  Old-English  Game  they  may  be  red  or  pearl; 
in  the  Spangled,  red  or  daw,  but  of  whatever  color  they  may 
be,  both  eyes  in  each  fowl  should  be  of  the  same  color. 

80.  Mating. — In  mating  Old-English  Game  fowls  for 
exhibition  offspring,  both  males  and  females  must  be  carefully 
selected  for  variety  color;  in  both  parents,  the  eyes,  beak, 
shanks,  and  toes  must  be  alike  in  color,  and  the  plumage  color 
and  markings  correct  according  to  the  description  for  the 
variety.  Game  fowls  of  this  type  will,  if  bred  in  line  for  a  few 
years,  reproduce  true  to  feather. 

In  mating  for  the  purpose  of  producing  stags  for  the  pit, 
the  safe  plan  is  to  have  a  strain  of  both  males  and  females  that 
will  stand  the  gaff — the  steel  spur.  No  dependence  should 
ever  be  placed  on  unknown  fowls  for  this  purpose.  Known 
producing  females  are  most  highly  esteemed. 


MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS 


ORIGIN,  CLASSIFICATION,  AND 
DISTINCTIVE  CHARACTERS 

1.  In  the  division  of  races  of  poultry,  Edward  Brown  classes 
Leghorns  and  Anconas  as  Italian  fowls,  and  considers  Anda- 
lusians,  Spanish,  and  Minorcas  as  Spanish  fowls.  The  Amer- 
ican Standard  includes  all  these  under  the  head  of  Mediter- 
ranean fowls.  Mediterranean  fowls  are  among  the  most 
generally  distributed  domestic  fowls.  These  fowls  must  have 
existed  in  their  original  form  in  all  countries  bordering  on  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  in  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  Egypt,  Italy,  and 
Spain.  They  have  been  generally  distributed,  and  their  pecu- 
liarities of  white  ear  lobes,  lopped  combs,  and  non-sitting  pro- 
clivity have  been  stamped  on  many  varieties  of  fowls  derived 
from  them.  The  Mediterranean  breeds  and  varieties  of  fowls 
have  the  distinctive  character  of  producing  white-shelled  eggs; 
they  have  but  little  inclination  to  sit,  and  have  wonderful 
activity,  coupled  with  great  strength  and  vitality. 

Many  theories  have  been  advanced  as  to  the  cause  of  tlie 
non-sitting  proclivity  of  fowls.  During  their  earliest  existence, 
when  the  hatching  ovens  of  Egypt  and  near-by  countries  were 
used  for  incubation  and  the  hens  were  urged  to  lay  and  were 
not  encouraged  to  hatch  their  eggs,  the  instinct,  if  they  had  it, 
may  have  been  bred  out  of  them.  From  time  to  time  other 
theories  have  been  advanced.  There  is  no  need,  however,  to 
discuss  this  matter  further  than  to  say  that  it  has  been  satis- 
factorily proved  that  fowls  of  any  breed  or  variety  can,  by 
selection  and  care  to  prevent  broodiness,  be  trained  into  hav- 
ing but  little  inclination  to  hatch  their  eggs.     On  the  other 

501 


502  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

hand,  those  of  almost  any  breed  or  variety  may  be  bred  and 
fed  into  a  strong  predilection  for  brooding. 

The  claim  has  been  made  that  the  Black  Spanish  was  the 
first  of  all  the  Mediterranean  fowls  to  be  seen  in  other  coun- 
tries than  Spain.  Later  investigation  has  developed  evidence 
that  the  Spanish  fowls  as  now  known  were  unknown  in  Spain 
imtil  taken  there  from  other  coimtries.  The  primitive  Cas- 
tilian,  the  Minorca,  and  the  Black  Spanish  may  have  been  of 
one  origin.  The  Castilian  and  the  Minorca  were  as  nearly 
alike  in  early  days  as  the  Leghorns  of  England  and  America 
are  at  present.  The  Black  Spanish,  as  originally  known  in 
America,  were  not  imlike  the  existing  Black  Minorcas.  Leg- 
horns and  Minorcas  are  now  seen  with  as  much  white  in  the 
face  as  was  characteristic  of  the  Black  Spanish  of  1850.  Many 
of  the  Leghorns  of  1870-80  had  more  red  than  white  in  their  ear 
lobes;  and  as  late  as  1883,  there  was  considerable  controversy 
as  to  whether  or  not  white  ear  lobes  should  be  encouraged 
in  Rose-Comb  Brown  Leghorns.  Although  one  peculiarity  of 
the  Mediterranean  fowls  is  white  ear  lobes,  there  is  also  a 
tendency  in  them  to  show  considerable  red  in  the  ear  lobes  as 
well  as  white  in  the  face.  It  is  not  infrequent  for  as  many  as 
10  per  cent,  of  the  females  in  a  large  flock  to  show  a  disposi- 
tion to  be  broody  at  some  time  during  the  year.  This  will 
occur  in  flocks  where  Leghorns  have  been  permitted  to  hatch 
a  brood  of  chicks  only  when  they  have  hidden  their  nests  and 
brought  them  forth  imnoticed. 

Leghorn  and  other  Mediterranean  fowls  will  occasionally 
hatch  and  rear  chicks  and  mother  them  imtil  they  are  almost 
half  grown,  but  it  is  scarcely  safe  to  depend  on  them  to  con- 
tinue faithful  to  a  nest  of  eggs.  Even  though  they  may  begin 
with  all  the  appearance  of  broodiness,  they  are  apt  to  leave 
their  eggs  before  the  period  of  incubation  has  terminated. 

No  fowl  is  more  precocious  than  the  Leghorn.  It  is  not  unu- 
sual for  Leghorns  to  begin  laying  at  the  age  of  4  or  4|  months 
and  to  continue  to  lay  after  they  are  4  years  old.  Large,  well- 
selected  flocks  of  Leghorns  have  laid  well  for  three  consecutive 
winters  and  produced  more  than  enough  eggs  to  pay  for  their 
maintenance  during  the  fourth  winter.     Individual  Leghorn 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  503 

hens  have  laid  more  than  500  eggs  in  three  consecutive  years, 
indicating  that  there  are  great  possibilities  in  breeding,  feeding, 
and  caring  for  them  in  a  manner  that  will  make  them  profitable 
for  four  laying  years.  Such  tests  of  their  ability  at  egg  pro- 
duction lead  to  the  belief  that,  by  careful  breeding,  fowls  may 
be  produced  of  a  type  that  will  continue  to  lay  well  into  the 
third  and  fourth  years.  And  this  may  be  accomplished  in  a 
type  of  fowls  that  will  rank  well  as  exhibition  fowls.  Although 
continual  laying  is  injurious  to  condition,  brothers  and  sisters 
of  the  heaviest  layers  have  often  won  honors  in  the  exhibition 
pen,  showing  to  what  extent  the  production  of  fowls  for  exhi- 
bition, for  egg  production,  and  for  market  may  contribute  to 
the  profit  of  those  who  produce  them. 

The  type  of  all  varieties  of  Mediterranean  fowls  differs  mate- 
rially in  America,  England,  and  Australia.  In  America,  the 
Mediterranean  fowls,  including  the  Minorca,  are  more  of  the 
Old-English  Game  type  than  in  other  countries.  In  Aus- 
tralia, a  type  that  is  medium  between  the  American  and  the 
English  types  is  preferred,  a,nd  in  England  all  varieties  of  Leg- 
horn and  other  Mediterranean  fowls  are  more  like  the  Ameri- 
can Minorca.  The  Minorcas  themselves  differ  materially  in 
England  and  America.  One  great  difference  between  the 
Mediterranean  fowls  of  America  and  those  of  England  will  be 
found  in  the  comb  formation.  English  fanciers  breed  for  combs 
much  larger  than  are  acceptable  in  America.  Leghorns  and 
Minorcas  that  have  come  from  England  to  America  are  usually 
condemned  for  the  excessive  comb  and  for  bad  comb  formation. 
English  writers  are  disposed  to  class  Leghorns  and  Anconas  as 
Italian  fowls  and  others  to  class  them  as  Spanish  fowls,  but  here 
they  are  taken  up  and  discussed  in  alphabetical  order  and 
classed  under  the  general  heading  of  Mediterranean  fowls. 


504  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 


ANCONA 


SINGLE-COMB  ANCONA 

2.  The  Single-Comb  Ancona  is,  in  reality,  a  mottled  Leg- 
horn, although  the  fowls  are  classed  as  another  breed  and  are 
considered  as  distinct  from  other  Mediterranean  fowls,  such  as 
the  Minorca  and  Black  Spanish.  At  an  early  day  a  type  of 
Leghorn  or  Italian  fowl,  called  splashed  or  mottled,  that  greatly 
resembled  the  Ancona  of  today,  was  known  to  be  in  existence. 
Like  the  Mottled  Java  and  similar  fowls,  these  mottled  fowls 
undoubtedly  came  from  the  intermingling  of  black  and  white 
varieties  in  their  native  land.  Years  ago  it  was  not  uncommon 
to  see  some  of  the  Mediterranean  fowls  with  black  and  white 
plumage.  These  occurred  in  Black  Spanish  as  well  as  in  the 
Leghorns,  and  at  the  present  time  there  is  in  Scotland  a  new 
variety — a  broken-colored  black  and  white  Leghorn,  called  the 
Exchequer  Leghorn.  This  is  claimed  to  be  superior  to  all  other 
Leghorns  for  egg  production,  but  there  is  no  proof  that  this  is 
true. 

3.  Origin. — The  Single-Comb  Ancona  was  originally 
named  after  the  locality  in  Italy  from  which  it  came.  The 
fowls  of  this  breed  are  said  to  have  been  plentiful  in  the 
districts  of  Eastern  Italy,  about  the  port  of  Ancona.  When 
first  brought  to  public  notice,  the  Anconas  were  irregularly 
splashed  in  plumage,  and  were  really  splashed  Leghorns,  or 
Italians,  as  they  were  called,  and  undoubtedly  originated 
from  the'  promiscuous  intermingling  of  the  different  varieties 
of  fowls  in  the  portion  of  Italy  whence  they  came.  The  claim 
is  also  made  that  they  descended  from  the  promiscuous  ma- 
tings  of  black  and  of  white  Minorcas.  Their  size  and  general 
make-up  at  the  present  time  would  indicate,  however,  that 
they  were  of  Leghorn,  or   Italian,  rather  than  of   Minorca 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  505 

origin.     The  modem  type  of  Single-Comb  Ancona  was  devel- 
oped by  the  fanciers  of  England. 

English  writers  are  divided  in  opinion  regarding  the  origin 
of  Anconas,  but  an  examination  of  the  best  information  obtain- 
able leads  to  the  belief  that  they  have  descended  largely  from 
Black  Leghorns.  Of  late,  Black  Leghorns  have  been  used  for 
crossing  with  the  light-colored  Anconas  to  darken  the  siirface 
plumage. 

4.  Development. — The  Single-Comb  Anconas  have  been 
developed  from  the  mottled  or  splashed  Italian  type  of  fowls. 
The  color  of  their  shanks  and  skin  would  indicate  Leghorn 
rather  than  Minorca  origin.  Their  early  development  was 
carried  on  almost  exclusively  by  the  fanciers  of  England,  only 
a  few  of  them  having  been  bred  in  America,  for  exhibition 
purposes. 

5.  History. — Attention  was  first  called  to  the  Single-Comb 
Anconas  about  1880.  Prior  to  that  time,  mention  was  made 
of  a  type  of  fowls  that  would  indicate  a  variety  of  Italian  fowls 
having  mottled  black  and  white  plumage.  The  earlier  type 
was  inclined  to  have  shanks  of  a  brighter  shade  of  yellow  than 
the  present  Anconas.  The  shanks  of  these  early  Anconas  were 
mottled  with  a  dark  shade  of  yellow  and  with  black.  Since 
1885,  importations  from  Italy  into  England  have  been  frequent, 
and  a  number  of  Anconas  have  been  brought  from  England  to 
America.  In  England  a  club  was  formed  in  their  interest,  and 
about  1900  a  new  standard  was  made  for  them.  They  were 
admitted  to  the  American  Standard  of  1898 ;  in  the  description 
in  this  book  it  was  stated  that  their  shape  was  about  the  same 
as  that  of  the  Leghorns,  and  that  their  plumage  color  was 
broken  black  and  white,  evenly  distributed.  A  better  descrip- 
tion of  them  is  embodied  in  the  American  and  in  the  English 
Club  Standards  of  1910. 

6.  Description. — The  1910  EngHsh  Club  Standards  states 
that  the  ground  color  of  the  plumage  of  Single-Comb  Anconas 
should  be  a  beetle  green,  and  that  the  ends  of  the  feathers 
should  have  V-shaped  white  tips;  it  also  states  that  laced  ends 
on  feathers  are  to  be  avoided.     Formerly,  the  tail  feathers  of 


506  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

Anconas  were  mostly  white,  but  the  tail  is  now  black,  tipped 
with  white ;  the  shanks  and  toes  are  yellow,  mottled  with  black. 
The  American  Standard  of  1910  describes  Anconas  as  fowls  of 
Leghorn  type,  and  states  that  the  plumage  of  the  males  should 
be  lustrous  black,  with  about  one  feather  in  five  tipped  with 
white.  The  Y-shaped  white  tip  described  in  the  English  Club 
Standards  and  the  white  spangle  at  the  end  of  every  fifth 
feather  described  in  the  American  Standard  are  somewhat 
similar.  The  beak,  shanks,  and  toes  of  Anconas  should  be 
yellow,  spotted  with  black;  the  comb,  face,  wattles,  and  eyes 
should  be  red;  and  the  ear  lobes  should  be  white. 

The  Anconas  are  virtually  Leghorns,  yet  there  seems  to  be 
a  determination  to  change  them  into  fowls  more  like  the  Brae- 
kels  in  body  formation.  This  would  undoubtedly  be  of  advan- 
tage to  them.  The  Campine  is  the  Leghorn  of  Belgium,  and 
the  Braekel  is  more  of  a  general-purpose  fowl  of  the  same 
country. 

7.  Mating. — The  latest  directions  for  mating  Single-Comb 
Anconas  according  to  the  English  method  state  that  fowls  hav- 
ing Leghorn  breed  characters  should  be  selected.  To  meet  the 
Standard  requirements  in  England,  the  Leghorn  fowls  must 
have  a  heavier  body  formation  than  is  approved  in  America. 
In  addition  to  this  heavy  body  formation,  Anconas  for  mating 
should  have  body  plinnage  of  a  lustrous  black,  with  a  rich 
beetle-green  sheen  to  it ;  the  under  plumage  should  be  dark ;  all 
the  white  in  the  feathers  should  be  confined  to  the  tip,  and  the 
ear  lobes  should  be  as  white  as  it  is  possible  to  have  them;  the 
eyes  should  be  brilliant  in  color;  the  shanks  and  toes  should  be 
yellow,  marked  with  dark  or  black  spots;  the  beak  should  be 
horn  color  or  yellow,  marked  with  a  darker  color.  Strict 
attention  should  be  given  to  the  selection  of  fowls  having 
fairly  good  size  and  a  perfect  development  of  Y-shaped  white 
tips  on  the  feathers.  Lacing  or  spangHng  like  that  found  on 
a  Hamburg  on  the  ends  of  the  feathers  or  in  any  part  of  the 
pltimage  should  be  avoided.  The  darker  the  breeding  fowls 
are  in  under  plumage,  the  greater  will  be  the  chances  of  pro- 
ducing a  rich,  lustrous,  black  surface  color  in  their  offspring. 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  507 

Anconas  are  difficult  to  produce  in  perfection,  yet  this  diffi- 
culty has  attracted  fanciers  to  them.  Anconas  have  not 
received  as  much  attention  in  America  as  in  England.  The 
fanciers  of  America  have  recently  seen  the  need  of  greater 
perfection  in  them  and  have  declared  against  the  spangled 
plumage  as  described  in  the  Standard  of  1910,  and  in  favor  of 
the  V-shaped  markings,  which  are  proper.  To  breed  them 
correctly,  parent  fowls  must  be  very  dark  in  pltmiage,  with  a 
rich,  brilliant  sheen  on  the  surface  plimiage;  they  must  have 
dark  under  plumage  and  distinct  white  markings  of  correct 
shape  at  the  ends  of  the  feathers.  Even  from  matings  of  the 
best  fowls  obtainable,  many  of  the  offspring  will  be  much  too 
light  for  exhibition.  To  intensify  the  color  and  increase  the 
amount  of  black,  Anconas  must  be  crossed  with  Black  Leg- 
horns. When  this  is  done,  the  English  type  of  Black  Leghorns 
should  be  used  to  increase  the  size. 


ROSE-COMB  ANCONA 

8.  Origin. — The  Rose-Comb  Ancona  is  said  to  have 
originated  from  the  Single-Comb  Ancona,  by  crosses  with  Silver 
Hamburg  and  Silver  Laced  Wyandotte  fowls.  There  is  no 
authentic  record  of  their  origin. 

9.  Development. — The  Rose-Comb  Ancona  was  origi- 
nated in  England  and  developed  by  a  few  fanciers  who  had 
keen  interest  in  the  improvement  of  the  fowls. 

10.  History. — The  Ancona  Club  of  England  recognizes 
the  Rose-Comb  as  well  as  the  Single-Comb  Ancona,  and  both 
have  been  admitted  to  their  Standard.  The  Rose-Comb 
Ancona  has  not  been  admitted  to  the  American  Standard. 
Fowls  of  this  variety  do  not  now  possess  quality  equal  to  those 
of  the  single-comb  variety. 

11.  Description. — In  size,  shape,  and  color  the  Rose- 
Comb  Ancona  conforms  to  the  Single-Comb  Ancona,  the  only 
difference  being  that  the  former  has  a  rose  comb  of  medium 
size,  low  and  square  in  front,  and  tapering  to  a  point  in  the 
rear,  the  heel  of  the  comb  following  the  shape  of  the  head. 


508  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

12.  Mating. — Fowls  for  mating  for  the  production  of  the 
Rose-Comb  Ancona  should  be  the  same  kind,  comb  excepted, 
as  for  the  Single-Comb  Ancona.  From  the  fact  that  there  are 
not  many  Rose-Comb  Anconas  of  good  quality,  the  best  that 
can  be  selected  must  be  used,  and  the  best  offspring  selected 
and  mated  until  breed  characters,  color,  markings,  and  comb 
have  been  perfected.  

ANDALUSIAN 

13.  The  Andalusian  is  one  of  the  oldest  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean breeds  of  fowls.  Andalusians  are  mentioned  in  the 
earliest  classifications  of  poultry.  They  are  larger  than  fowls 
of  any  of  the  other  Mediterranean  breeds,  the  Spanish  and  the 
Minorca  excepted. 

14.  Origin. — The  Andalusians  of  the  present  were  made 
by  the  fanciers  of  England,  and  the  fowls  from  which  they 
have  been  developed  came  from  the  Mediterranean  region. 
Undoubtedly  they  have  resulted  from  the  promiscuous  inter- 
mingling of  white  and  of  black  fowls  in  their  native  lands,  and 
the  best  were  selected  and  bred  imtil  they  were  brought  to  their 
present  state  of  perfection. 

15.  Development. — Poultry  fanciers  all  over  the  world 
have  taken  part  in  the  development  of  the  Andalusians.  They 
were  brought  from  England  to  America  and  have  been  more 
or  less  ctiltivated  by  the  fanciers  of  the  United  States  and 
Canada.  In  their  development,  special  attention  has  been 
given  to  large  size,  to  breed  characters,  and  to  beautiful  plu- 
mage color. 

16.  History.— The  Rev.  E.  S.  Dixon,  M.  A.,  wrote  of 
them  in  early  days  as  follows:  "Some  of  the  birds  are  of  a 
blue  or  gray  or  slaty  color.  Their  growth  is  so  rapid  and 
their  eventual  size  is  so  great  that  they  are  remarkably  slow 
in  obtaining  their  feathers.  Although  well  covered  with  down 
when  first  hatched,  they  look  almost  naked  when  half  grown 
and  should  therefore  be  hatched  early  in  the  spring." 

Moubray's  treatise  on  "Domestic  and  Ornamental  Poultry" 
states:     "No  other  of  the  Spanish  family  has  a  better  title  than 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  509 

the  Andalusians  to  be  viewed  as  a  distinct  sub  variety.  The 
name  has  of  late  been  applied  to  the  recently  imported  Gray 
and  Spangled  Spanish.  It  is  proposed,  however,  to  confine  it 
to  a  perfectly  black  subvariety,  long  known  in  this  country, 
which  has  been  imported  from  the  same  district  of  Andalusia 
as  the  Grays." 

The  same  writer  states  that  the  appellation  of  Ancona  is  also 
frequently  applied  to  fowls  of  the  Andalusian  and  Minorca 
subvarieties,  and  he  questions  the  right  of  appropriating  the 
name  Andalusian  to  other  fowls  than  those  to  which  it  origi- 
nally belonged.  Later,  Martin  Doyle  stated  that  "the  Anda- 
lusian is  unquestionably  a  cross  of  the  Gray  Manx,  which  is 
now  rarely  seen."  He  goes  further  and  states  that  the  Manx 
was  the  original  domesticated  species  in  Spain. 

Later  writers  state  that  the  Andalusians  were  originally  called 
Blue  Spanish,  and  that  they  were  of  a  blue  or  dove  color,  some 
of  them  having  fairly  good  black  lacing.  From  the  information 
that  can  be  gathered,  and  viewing  them  in  comparison  with  the 
early  Spanish  fowls,  which  have  but  little  more  white  about  the 
head  than  is  now  seen  in  the  Minorca,  it  is  fair  to  assume  that 
the  Andalusian,  the  Spanish,  and  the  Minorca  were  derived 
from  the  same  source.  It  is  thought  that  Andalusian  fowls 
were  first  brought  to  England  in  1851,  and  were  known  by  the 
various  names  of  Blue  Spanish,  Blue  Minorca,  and  Andalu- 
sian, and  that  all  of  them  were  fashioned  after  the  game  fowl, 
some  claiming  that  they  were  a  blue  variety  of  game  fowls. 
Notwithstanding  this  statement,  they  are  mentioned  prior  to 
1850  by  the  Rev.  Dixon. 

17.  Description. — The  Andalusians  differ  materially 
from  the  Leghorns  in  shape,  being  more  like  the  Spanish  in 
form  and  breed  characters  than  fowls  of  any  of  the  other  Med- 
iterranean breeds.  The  comb,  face,  wattles,  and  eyes  are  red; 
the  beak  is  dark;  the  shanks  and  toes  are  of  a  bluish  tinge — 
the  more  distinctive  the  blue,  the  more  desirable  are  the  fowls; 
the  top  color  of  the  males,  including  sickles  and  tail  coverts, 
is  a  rich  black,  overcast  with  a  bluish  tinge;  the  rest  of  the 
plumage  is  silvery  blue,  as  described  in  the  English  Club  Stand- 


510  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §11 

ards,  and  slaty  blue  as  described  in  the  American  Standard; 
the  feathers  are  edged  or  laced  with  a  darker  shade,  approach- 
ing black.  The  head  and  hackle  of  the  female  is  bluish  black, 
gradually  lightening  into  a  blmsh  slate  color  about  the  neck ;  the 
body  plumage  is  described  in  the  American  Standard  as  slaty 
blue,  and  in  the  English  Standard  as  silvery  blue  laced  with  a 
darker  shade,  approaching  black.  The  main  tail  feathers  and 
the  secondaries  are  greatly  improved  if  laced  about  the  ends 
with  the  darker  shade  of  color.  White  in  the  face,  rusty  color 
in  the  plumage,  and  bad-colored  shanks  are  serious  defects. 

The  Standard  weights  for  Andalusians  are :  Cocks,  6  pounds; 
cockerels  and  hens,  5  pounds;  pullets,  4  pounds.  The  English 
Standard  calls  for  from  7  to  8  poimds  in  males  and  from  5  to  6 
po\uids  in  females. 

18.  Mating. — The  most  discouraging  feature  of  breeding 
blue  fowls  is  the  tendency  natural  to  them  not  only  to  produce 
many  badly  marked  offspring  but  many  that  are  marked  with 
white.  This  has  been  overcome  to  some  extent  by  encour- 
aging in  the  show  room  a  darker  shade  of  top  color  in  the  males 
and  dark  hackles  in  the  females.  Formerly,  it  was  not  imusual 
for  more  than  half  the  offspring  to  be  splashed  with  white. 
Some  strains  at  the  present  time  will  produce  offspring  50  per 
cent,  of  which  will  be  fit  for  breeding  and  exhibition  purposes 
and  more  than  half  the  rest  will  have  fairly  good  plumage 
color.  Such  fowls,  however,  can  be  produced  only  from  those 
that  have  been  bred  in  line  from  a  selection  of  the  best  each 
year.  To  overcome  the  tendency  to  lose  color,  the  males  used 
in  the  matings  should  be  heavily  laced  with  dark  blue  or  black 
about  the  edges  of  the  feathers  of  the  breast  and  body.  Some 
of  the  hens  that  are  selected  for  the  matings  may  be  light  sil- 
very blue,  laced  with  dark  blue;  others  in  the  same  matings 
should  be  darker;  all  should  be  true  in  color  and  markings, 
with  no  trace  of  white  or  gray  in  their  pltimage.  It  has  taken 
years  of  careful  breeding  to  have  the  Andalusian  fowls  so  nearly 
perfect.  Constant  watchfulness  and  care  must  be  practiced 
to  improve  their  quality  and  to  keep  them  equal  to  what  they 
now  are. 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  511 


LEGHORN 


ORIGIN  AND  HISTORY 

19.  Italy  was  undoubtedly  the  home  of  the  original  Leg- 
horn fowls.  Early  literature  shows  that  poultry  of  several 
kinds  was  bred  at  least  3,000  years  ago,  and  the  records  state 
that  fowls  were  used  for  food  by  the  Romans  2,000  years  ago. 
The  earliest  detailed  description  of  them  indicates  that  there 
were  fowls  with  five  toes  and  some  with  fewer,  and  of  various 
shades  of  plumage.  According  to  some  of  the  earliest  records, 
game  fowls  were  known  to  exist,  and  it  is  natural  to  suppose 
that  their  existence  was  known  to  the  Romans  and  to  their 
ancestors.  They  were  no  doubt  distributed  throughout  the 
Roman  Empire,  and  from  such  an  ancestry  the  many  plumage 
colors  of  the  Leghorn  fowls  can  be  traced. 

Leghorns,  as  they  now  exist,  were  developed  by  the  poultry- 
men  of  the  United  States.  Fowls  of  various  kinds  were  pur- 
chased from  sailing  vessels  that  came  from  Spanish  countries 
to  American  ports.  At  that  period,  supplies  of  fresh  meat 
were  carried  alive,  and  poultry  was  most  convenient  for  this 
purpose.  The  captains  of  ships  landing  with  a  surplus  stock 
of  fowls  were  willing  to  dispose  of  them  and  take  on  a  new  sup- 
ply that  would  be  better  able  to  stand  the  strain  of  the  return 
trip,  and  in  this  way  Leghorns  were  brought  to  the  United 
States. 

There  has  been  a  great  deal  of  contention  as  to  which  was 
the  original  variety  of  Leghorn  and  which  was  first  brought  to 
America.  Personal  investigation  by  an  officer  of  the  United 
States  Navy  furnishes  the  information  that  about  1815  Leg- 
horn fowls  were  of  all  kinds  of  colors  of  the  game  fowls  and 
were  all  more  or  less  alike  in  shape.  This  investigation  was 
made  in  response  to  a  request  to  learn  the  variety  colors  of 
poultry  exposed  for  sale  in  the  Mediterranean  ports. 


512  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

This  would  indicate  that  the  Leghorn  fowls,  as  they  existed 
in  Italy  prior  to  1815,  were  a  mongrel  lot  and  that  they  had  come 
from  the  promiscuous  breeding  of  all  kinds  and  colors  of  fowls 
that  conformed  to  a  single  type.  They  had  the  peculiarity 
of  white  ear  lobes  and  the  production  of  white-shelled  eggs. 
Martin  Doyle,  one  of  the  earliest  writers  on  poultry,  refers  to 
a  fowl,  which  he  calls  Manx,  as  the  original  Spanish  fowl. 
Some  writers  claim  that  black,  some  that  brown,  and  others 
that  white  Leghorns  were  the  first  to  be  brought  to  America. 
Some  allege  that  there  were  no  black  fowls  resembling  Leg- 
horns in  the  Spanish  countries  in  early  days.  All  such  claims 
seem  to  rest  entirely  on  individual  investigation.  There  does 
not  seem  to  be  any  doubt  that  wherever  white  fowls  have 
existed,  there  were  black  fowls  of  the  same  character,  and 
that  wherever  black  fowls  existed,  white  ones  of  the  same  kind 
were  almost  certain  to  be  present.  Undoubtedly,  the  founda- 
tion blood  of  the  White,  the  Black,  and  the  Brown  Leghorn 
fowls  was  early  brought  to  America.  It  has  been  fairly  well 
established  that  the  Rose-Comb  Leghorn  did  not  exist  in  the 
Spanish  or  Italian  countries,  and  it  has  also  been  stated  that 
the  Brown  Leghorns  were  not  a  natiu-al  product  of  Mediter- 
ranean districts.  It  can  scarcely  be  questioned,  however,  that 
among  the  poiiltry  natural  to  the  Mediterranean  districts 
there  were  fowls  of  the  Leghorn  type,  from  which  all  the 
varieties  have  been  originated  by  selecting  and  mating  for 
a  purpose.  

BLACK  LEGHORN 


SINGLE -COMB    BLACK    LEGHORN 

20.  Origin. — ^As  all  Leghorn  fowls  originated  from  the 
one  source,  it  is  unnecessary  to  repeat  the  origin  of  the  Black 
Leghorn. 

21.  Development. — Black  Leghorn  fowls  have  not  gained 
as  m.uch  favor  in  America  as  in  other  countries,  but  little  atten- 
tion having  been  given  to  their  development.  English  fanciers 
have  done  most  for  their  improvement. 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  513 

22.  History. — It  is  now  generally  admitted  that  White, 
Brown,  and  Black  Leghorn  fowls  were  brought  direct  from  Italy 
to  America,  and  were  first  developed  in  the  United  States. 
Black-plumaged  fowls  never  having  been  favorites  in  America, 
the  Black  Leghorn  fared  badly,  and,  although  the  variety  was 
included  in  the  first  authorized  Standard  of  the  American  Poul- 
try Association,  the  fowls  never  became  popular.  Their  shanks 
and  toes  were  originally  described  as  being  yellowish  black. 
This  same  description  is  maintained  in  the  present  American 
Standard  of  Perfection.  The  English  Standard  states  that 
shanks  and  feet  shall  be  yellow  or  orange,  with  yellow  toe  nails. 

A  rose-comb  variety  of  Black  Leghorn  is  recognized  by  the 
English  Standard,  all  requirements  except  the  comb  being 
the  same  as  for  the  single-comb  variety.  In  writing  of  them 
in  his  "Poultry  Manual,"  the  Rev.  T.  W.  Sturges,  M.  A.,  of 
England,  states  that  the  Black  Leghorns  are  of  pure  Italian 
blood;  that  they  have  long  been  bred  not  only  in  Italy,  but  in 
Germany,  Switzerland,  and  Belgium,  and  that  some  of  the 
best  that  have  come  into  England  have  been  brought  from 
Belgium.  The  Black  Minorca  has  been  bred  into  the  Black 
Leghorn  to  increase  the  size.  The  Single-Comb  Black  Leg- 
horn has  become  popular  in  England  during  recent  years, 
although  it  has  gained  but  little  favor  in  America. 

23.  Description. — All  Leghorns  should  conform  in  a 
general-  way  to  one  shape,  which  is  portrayed  in  the  color  illus- 
tration. Notwithstanding  this,  a  slight  difference  does  exist 
in  the  general  formation  of  some  of  the  varieties.  Fowls  of  the 
white  variety  have  been  bred  in  the  highest  state  of  perfection, 
or  nearest  to  the  Standard  description.  Those  of  the  brown 
variety  diverge  a  little  from  this  description ;  the  Duckwing,  or, 
as  it  is  now  called,  the  Silver  Leghorn,  conforms  less  to  this 
Standard  description  than  the  Leghorn  of  any  other  variety. 
A  general  description  of  shape  is  given  in  the  discussion  of  the 
white  variety. 

Comb,  face,  wattles,  and  eyes  are  red;  the  beak,  shanks,  and 
toes  are  yellow,  or  yellowish  black;  the  ear  lobes  are  white;  the 
su'rface  plumage  throughout  must  be  glistening  black  in  this 


514  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

variety — the  more  sheen  on  the  surface  pliimage,  especially 
in  the  males,  the  more  beautiful  they  will  be.  The  under  plu- 
mage should  be  very  dark  or  black ;  white  or  other  foreign  colors 
are  not  permissible  in  any  part  of  the  plumage. 

24.  Mating. — In  mating  Black  Leghorn  fowls  for  the  pro- 
duction of  exhibition  specimens,  those  having  perfect  Leghorn 
type  and  black  plimiage  glistening  with  sheen  are  likely  to  pro- 
duce offspring  having  the  richest  plimiage  color.  Red  may 
appear  in  the  hackle  and  saddle  of  some  of  the  males  produced 
from  such  fowls,  but  otherwise,  good  color  in  the  surface  and 
under  plumage  should  prevail.  The  main  difficulties  to  be 
avoided  are  pinched  tails  in  the  females,  tails  carried  too  high 
in  the  males,  and  too  much  dark  color  on  the  shanks  and  toes. 
It  is  less  difficult  to  produce  yellowish-black  shanks  in  males 
than  in  females.  Some  breeders  have  introduced  Black  Leg- 
horns with  yellow  shanks  from  England  to  improve  the  color 
of  shanks.  

ROSE-COMB    BLACK    LEGHORN 

25.  Rose-Comb  Black  Leghorn  fowls  of  beautifiil  form 
and  color  have  been  produced  by  crossings  of  the  Single-Comb 
Black  Leghorn  with  the  Black  Hamburg.  The  offspring  from 
these  matings  have  been  selected  and  mated,  and  this  process 
continued  imtil  a  variety  of  Rose-Comb  Black  Leghorn  has 
been  produced  that  is  fully  the  equal,  and,  in  many  instances, 
the  superior  of  other  rose-comb  varieties.  To  improve  the 
shank  and  toe  color,  Rose-Comb  White  Leghorn  females  have 
been  bred  with  the  Rose-Comb  Black  Leghorn  males. 

The  only  development  that  the  Rose-Comb  Black  Leghorn 
has  received  has  been  along  the  lines  mentioned,  and  the  his- 
tory of  these  fowls  tells  only  of  a  few  fanciers  who  have  paid 
attention  to  their  development  for  beauty  and  finish  from  a 
fancier's  standpoint. 

The  description  of  the  Rose-Comb  Black  Leghorn  is  the  same 
as  that  of  the  Single-Comb  Black  Leghorn,  the  only  difference 
being  in  the  shape  of  the  comb. 

The  fowls  selected  for  mating  for  the  production  of  exhibi- 
tion fowls  should  be  of  the  same  form,  with  the  exception  of 


^:^y^^:S. 


■^■■t"«^v 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  515 

the  comb,  and  of  the  same  color  as  the  single-comb  variety. 
Special  attention  should  be  given  to  the  comb,  ear  lobes, 
and  the  color  of  the  shanks  and  toes. 


BROWN  LEGHORN 


SINGLE-COMB    BROWN    LEGHORN 

26.  Origin. — Like  the  other  varieties,  the  Single-Comb 

Brown  Leghorn  originated  in  Italy.  The  fowls  of  this  vari- 
ety have  been  developed  to  their  present  state  of  perfection 
in  the  United  States  from  the  crude  fowls  brought  from  their 
native  land.  Their  origin  is  more  fully  explained  in  connec- 
tion with  their  history. 

27.  Development. — The  Brown  Leghorn  fowls  were 
largely  developed  by  A.  M.  Halsted,  of  Rye,  New  York,  who 
produced  the  best  that  were  known  prior  to  1870.  Since  that 
time  they  have  been  improved  year  after  year  by  a  nimiber  of 
fanciers  in  many  parts  of  the  United  States.  As  bred  in 
England,  they  are  so  different  in  general  characters  from  those 
bred  in  the  United  States  as  to  appear  like  fowls  of  another 
breed. 

28.  History. — It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  first 
Brown  Leghorns  were  brought  into  Massachusetts  between 
1850  and  1853.  The  first  authentic  record  of  their  appearance 
as  a  distinct  variety  is  credited  to  F.  J.  Kinney,  of  Worcester, 
Massachusetts,  who  secured  them  from  a  ship  in  Boston  har- 
bor in  the  spring  of  1853.  Following  this,  he  had  some  brought 
direct  from  the  city  of  Leghorn,  in  Italy;  these  he  described 
as  being  "not  brown-red  games,  nor  black-red  Leghorns,  but 
brown-red,  the  cocks  being  dark  brown  spotted  with  lighter 
brown."  .The  hens  were  colored  much  like  the  cocks.  This 
described  the  former  color  of  the  Brown-Red  Game,  to  which 
the  early  Brown  Leghorn  conformed.  It  has  been  claimed 
but  not  proved,  that  Leghorns  were  brought  into  the  ports  of 
New  England  as  early  as  1833.     This  is  undoubtedly  true, 


516  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

but  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  satisfactory  proof  that  the 
Brown  Leghorn  was  known  as  such  in  the  United  States  prior 
to  the  record  made  by  Mr.  Kinney. 

29.  Description. — The  Brown  Leghorn  for  exhibition 
should  conform  to  the  shape  description  of  all  Leghorns.  They 
do  not,  however,  have  shanks  as  long  as  the  white  variety. 
Both  the  males  and  the  females  are  usually  larger  than  the 
fowls  of  the  other  varieties,  and  the  tail  carriage  of  the  males 
differs  from  that  of  the  white  variety.  The  male  in  the  color 
illustration  of  Brown  Leghorns  is  a  portrait  of  the  best  male 
shown  in  1910,  and  the  female  is  a  composite  portrait  of  the 
three  best  females  shown  during  the  same  year.  The  color  and 
markings  have  been  made  as  nearly  like  the  original  as  possible. 
Body  formation,  comb,  and  general  make-up  are  copied  from 
life. 

The  top  color  of  the  Brown  Leghorn  male  is  red;  the  hackle 
and  saddle  are  striped  with  black;  the  red  should  be  as  rich 
and  brilliant  as  possible,  the  black  stripe  having  the  appear- 
ance of  having  been  laid  on  top  of  the  red.  The  breast  and 
body  color  of  the  male  is  glossy  black;  the  tail  throughout  is 
a  rich,  glossy  black,  burnished  with  a  greenish  sheen;  the 
shanks  and  toes  in  both  males  and  females  are  yellow  or  dusky 
yeUow.  The  plumage  of  the  female  is  light  brown,  stippled 
with  a  darker  shade;  the  breast  feathers  are  salmon,  shading 
lighter  as  they  approach  the  thighs.  The  beauty  of  the  female 
depends  largely  on  one  even  shade  in  the  plumage,  the  lighter 
shade  predominating,  with  no  reddish  tinge.  The  face,  comb, 
wattles,  and  eyes  in  both  males  and  females  are  red;  the  ear 
lobes  are  white,  and  the  color  of  the  under  plumage  is  dark. 

Brown  Leghorns  are  bred  in  both  single-  and  rose-comb 
varieties,  the  only  difference  being  in  the  style  of  comb.  Those 
of  the  single-comb  variety  have  a  beautifully  formed  comb 
that  stands  erect  on  the  male  and  droops  on  the  female.  The 
comb  of  those  of  the  rose-comb  variety  conforms  in  general 
make-up  to  the  comb  of  the  Hamburg,  but  is  usually  not  so 
large,  and  shows  more  tendency  to  follow  the  shape  of  the  head. 
Size,  shape,  color,  and  markings  are  the  same  in  both  varieties. 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  517 

The  rose-comb  variety  is  a  made  variety  and  will  be  mentioned 
more  fully  in  the  discussion  of  the  White  Leghorn. 

30.  Mating. — Two  methods  of  mating  are  necessary  for 
the  production  of  the  best  Brown  Leghorns  of  both  sexes. 
For  the  production  of  a  flock  of  even  color  and  attractive 
appearance,  single,  or  standard,  matings  may  be  practiced, 
though  but  few  fowls  fit  for  the  keenest  competition  can  be 
produced  in  this  way.  For  this  reason,  it  is  best,  where  but 
one  flock  is  kept,  to  have  this  of  the  pullet-breeding  line,  and 
to  be  satisfied  with  the  production  of  beautiful  pullets  and  such 
males  as  will  naturally  come  from  them. 

To  produce  a  flock  of  fairly  good  males  and  females  of  an 
even  color  by  single  mating,  it  is  necessary  to  select  females 
of  good  form  and  color,  and  to  mate  them  with  males  that  have 
little  or  no  striping  in  the  saddle  and  not  much  striping  in  the 
hackle.  From  such  matings,  fowls  of  medmin  quality  will 
be  produced.  When  the  offspring  from  such  matings  are  too 
dark,  males  selected  from  a  well-established  pullet-breeding 
line  should  be  introduced  into  the  flock. 

When  Brown  Leghorn  fowls  are  bred  for  utility  purposes, 
they  should  be  selected  from  the  female  line  and  bred  for  the 
production  of  female  offspring  with  the  beautiful  plumage  color 
of  the  standard-bred  female  and  without  regard  for  the  color 
and  markings  of  the  male.  In  this  way  females  of  uniform 
color  and  show  quality  will  be  produced,  and  the  pullets  will 
also  be  great  egg  producers  and  satisfactory  as  market  poultry. 
Only  males  bred  in  line  from  beautiful  females  shoiild  be  used 
in  such  matings,  and  neither  males  nor  females  from  cockerel- 
breeding  strains  should  be  introduced  into  such  a  flock. 

The  double  mating  system  is  practiced  with  Brown  Leghorns 
to  overcome  the  differences  in  color,  shape,  and  comb  between 
the  sexes.  Color  is  the  main  difficulty  and  needs  the  most 
attention.  The  exhibition  males  must  have  deep,  rich,  red 
plumage,  with  intense  hackle  and  saddle  stripings;  the  breast 
and  fluff  must  be  free  from  brown.  Rich  red  males  are  required 
to  produce  such  males.  Males  for  breeders  .should  have  (but 
usually  lack)  brilliancy.     Purple  in  any  part  of  the  plumage 


518  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

is  highly  objectionable.  Other  bad  colors  common  to  Brown 
Leghorn  males  are  found  in  the  hackle,  which  will  often  show 
several  shades  lighter  than  the  back  and  saddle  plumage;  or 
the  black  stripe  in  the  hackle  will  run  out  at  the  tip  and  not 
be  completely  encircled  with  red  edging.  When  the  black 
striping  runs  out  at  the  tip  of  the  hackle  feathers,  there  is  a 
smutty  appearance,  or  a  circle  of  black,  at  the  end  of  the  hackle. 
The  points  of  all  feathers  that  have  striping  should  be  edged 
with  red,  and  no  striping  should  run  out  to  the  edge  of  a  feather. 
The  top  plumage  of  the  male  should  be  an  even  shade  of  rich, 
brilliant  red,  striped  with  black,  and  have  a  brilliant,  greenish 
sheen. \]  The  breast  and  body  plumage  and  wing  bars  should 
be  a  rich,  glossy  black;  the  shanks  and  toes  should  be  yellow. 

Such  males  should  be  mated  to  females  that  have  come 
from  the  same  line  of  breeding.  They  should  have  heavily 
striped  hackles  edged  with  red,  and  a  green  sheen  over  the 
back  and  wings.  This  point  shoiild  be  more  carefiilly  looked 
after  than  is  usual.  Females  that  have  a  dark  partridge  color 
on  the  body  plumage  should  not  be  discarded  even  though 
their  breasts  are  almost  black.  Records  should  be  kept  of 
the  males  produced  from  each  hen,  and  all  hens  that  do  not 
produce  cockerels  of  the  most  satisfactory  exhibition  quality 
shoiild  be  discarded,  and  only  hens  and  their  offspring  that 
produce  well  should  be  continued  in  the  flock.  No  males  or 
females  from  the  pullet-breeding  line  should  ever  be  intro- 
duced into  a  strain  of  fowls  bred  exclusively  for  the  production 
of  exhibition  males. 

In  the  piillet-breeding  line,  only  males  that  have  been  bred 
in  line  for  three  generations  from  the  finest  exhibition  females 
should  be  used.  Such  males  mated  to  females  perfect  in  exhi- 
bition form  and  color  will  be  almost  certain  to  establish  a  line 
of  breeding  fowls  that  will  produce,  almost  to  a  certainty,  a 
number  of  females  that  are  quite  alike  and  fit  for  exhibition. 
Males  bred  from  such  matings  are  the  only  kind  that  will  be 
fit  for  use  in  mating  for  the  production  of  females.  No  matter 
what  the  color  and  markings  of  such  males  may  be,  if  they  have 
been  bred  in  line  for  three  generations  from  a  strain  that  pro- 
duces exhibition  pullets,  they  are  best  for  this  purpose. 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  519 

To  avoid  the  dangers  of  too  much  inbreeding,  two  of  the 
finest  exhibition  hens  shoiild  be  selected  each  year,  and  from 
their  offspring  the  cockerels  should  be  selected  for  the  next 
year's  matings.  Other  hens  should  be  selected  for  the  same 
purpose  the  following  years.  For  the  introduction  of  new 
blood  into  a  flock  of  this  kind,  the  finest  females  from  another 
pullet-breeding  strain  should  be  selected  and  mated  to  a 
cockerel  from  the  best  hen  in  the  fancier's  flock.  If  this  mating 
produces  pullets  of  superior  exhibition  qualities,  pullets  from 
this  line  may  be  mated  to  the  fancier's  own  best  males,  and  if 
these  pullets  continue  to  produce  females  of  superior  quality, 
cockerels  from  this  line  may  be  sparingly  introduced  into  the 
flock. 

In  breeding  for  the  production  of  exhibition  Brown  Leghorns, 
only  fowls  that  conform  to  the  shape  described  for  the  Leghorn 
breed  and  to  all  the  color  requirements  of  the  variety  should 
be  selected  for  each  mating. 


ROSE -COMB    BROWN    LEGHORN 

31.  Origin. — There  was  formerly  a  great  deal  of  con- 
troversy over  the  origin  of  the  Rcse-Comb  Brown  Legliorn. 
Y.  C.  McDaniel,  of  South  Hollis,  ■  Maine,  who  was  perhaps  the 
first  to  breed  fowls  of  this  variety,  has  never  given  an  accoimt 
of  their  origin.  Fred  Ayres,  of  Connecticut,  went  to  Italy 
in  search  of  Leghorns,  but  failed  to  find  the  rose-comb  varieties. 
It  is  probable  that  they,  like  all  rose-comb  varieties,  resulted 
from  crossing  the  single-comb  fowls  with  Hamburgs,  presimi- 
ably  the  golden  variety. 

32.  Development. — In  the  development  of  the  Rose- 
Comb  Brown  Leghorns,  a  number  of  crosses  have  been  made. 
Golden  Laced  Wyandottes  were  crossed  with  Brown  Leghorns, 
but  this  resulted  in  destroying  beauty  of  the  comb  and  body 
formation,  and  the  strains  so  produced  laid  eggs  with  tinted 
shells.  The  best  Rose-Comb  Brown  Leghorn  fowls  have  been 
made  by  carefully  selecting  the  breeders  for  breed  characters 
of  comb  and  color. 


520  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

33.  History. — The  history  of  the  Rose-Comb  Brown 
Leghorn  is  about  the  same  as  that  of  all  other  Leghorns  having 
rose  combs.  At  first  they  had  bad  color, and  faulty  comb  for- 
mation, but  of  late  many  have  been  produced  that  fully  equal 
those  of  the  single-comb  variety  in  breed  characters.  As 
early  as  1903,  a  pen  of  Rose-Comb  Brown  Leghorn  fowls  was 
sent  from  America  to  Australia,  by  Mrs.  Hansel,  to  compete 
in  an  annual  egg-laying  contest,  and  they  did  remarkably  well. 

34.  Description. — The  Rose-Comb  Brown  Leghorn  mu.st 
conform  in  size,  shape,  and  color  to  that  of  the  single-comb 
variety,  and,  in  addition,  must  have  a  beautifully  formed  rose 
comb  of  the  Hamburg  type. 

35.  Mating. — Rose-Comb  Brown  Leghorn  fowls  for  breed- 
ing piu-poses  must  be  selected  for  size,  shape,  and  color,  as 
demanded  for  those  of  the  single-comb  variety.  More  than 
usual  care  must  be  given  to  selecting  for  comb  formation, 
ear  lobes,  and  plumage  color.  The  fowls  of  the  rose-comb 
variety  must  be  considerably  improved  in  all  these  features 
before  they  will  equal  the  best  of  the  single-comb  variety. 
This  can  be  accomplished  if  as  much  care  is  given  to  them  as 
was  given  to  those  of  the  single-comb  variety. 


BUFF  LEGHORN 


SINGLE-COMB    BUFF    LEGHORN 

36.  Origin. — The  Buff  Leghorn  first  existed  in  Italy 
and  was  taken  from  there  to  Denmark.  The  origin  and  develop- 
ment of  the  Buff  Leghorn  is  more  fully  explained  in  its  history. 

37.  Development. — The  development  of  the  Single-Comb 
Buff  Leghorn  that  was  accomplished  prior  to  1888  was  made  in 
Denmark  and,  although  this  development  did  not  bring  the 
fowls  in  line  with  those  of  other  varieties  of  that  period,  it 
separated  them  into  a  variety  that  attracted  the  attention 
of  the  poultrymen  of  England, 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  521 

38.  History. — For  some  unknown  reason  the  yellow 
Italian  fowls  were  first  taken  from  Italy  to  Denmark,  where 
they  were  bred  for  market  poultry.  When  first  taken  into 
England  they  were  much  darker  than  they  should  be.  They 
have  been  known  both  as  Chamois  and  as  Yellow  Leghorns. 
They  were  bred  and  selected  in  England  until  fairly  good 
buff-colored  fowls  of  the  Leghorn  type  were  produced.  When 
first  brought  to  America,  they  were  of  bad  form  and  irregular 
in  the  color  of  their  shanks,  and  their  plumage  was  badly 
marked  with  white  and  black.  By  careful  breeding  and  select- 
ing they  are  now  of  true  Leghorn  type,  and  many  of  them  are 
golden  buff  throughout. 

39.  Description. — The  Buff  Leghorns  are  of  two  vari- 
eties, the  single-comb  and  the  rose-comb,  the  only  difference  in 
the  fowls  of  the  two  varieties  being  in  the  style  of  comb. 
Both  are  of  the  type  demanded  for  all  Leghorns.  Special 
features  to  be  desired  in  Buff  Leghorns  are  yellow  shanks 
and  beak  and  perfect  plumage  color.  They  have  always  been 
deficient  in  these  requirements,  and  also  in  the  color  of  the  ear 
lobes.  The  color  illustration  of  the  Rose-Comb  Buff  Leg- 
horns shows  the  type  and  color  that  is  most  desirable. 

40.  Mating. — In  mating  Buff  Leghorns  for  the  production 
of  exhibition  fowls,  marked  attention  must  be  given  to  the 
careful  selection  of  fowls  that  have  the  proper  breed  char- 
acters, true  golden-buff  plumage,  and  shanks  of  a  rich,  golden 
yellow;  In  mating  for  color,  the  same  rules  must  be  applied 
that  are  necessary  for  producing  the  best  color  of  plumage, 
as  described  for  the  mating  of  Buff  Cochins.  Neither  black 
nor  white  shoiild  exist  in  any  part  of  the  plumage  of  the  fowls 
selected  for  the  matings.  Marked  attention  must  be  given 
to  the  selection  of  properly  shaped  combs.  The  main  dif- 
ficulties to  be  overcome  are  defective  combs,  uneven  and 
improperly  colored  ear  lobes,  and  deficiency  in  the  color  of 
the  plimiage  and  shanks. 


522  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 


ROSE-COMB    BUFF    LEGHORN 

41.  Origin. — All  varieties  of  Leghorns  having  rose  combs 
have  been  produced  in  about  the  same  manner.  In  some 
instances  they  were  produced  by  crossing  Rose-Comb  White 
Leghorns  with  Single-Comb  Buff  Leghorns,  and  by  crossing 
Single-Comb  Buff  Leghorns  with  both  White  and  Golden 
Hamburgs.  Desirable  Rose -Comb  Buff  Leghorns  were  then 
secured  by  selecting  the  best  of  the  offspring  from  these  crosses 
and  breeding  from  them. 

42.  Development. — The  Rose-Comb  Buff  Leghorn  has 
been  largely  developed  by  the  fanciers  of  America,  and  although 
the  fowls  are  not  equal  in  quality  to  the  Single-Comb  Leg- 
horns, if  carefiilly  selected  and  bred,  they  will  be  made  as 
beautiful  as  any  of  the  Leghorn  family. 

43.  History. — The  history  of  the  Rose-Comb  Buff  Leg- 
horn is  coincident  with  that  of  the  Single-Comb  Buff  Leghorn. 

44.  Description. — Rose-Comb  Buff  Leghorns  must  con- 
form to  the  Single-Comb  Leghorns  in  every  way  except  in  the 
comb,  which  must  equal  in  quality  the  rose  comb  of  any  of  the 
Leghorn  varieties. 

45.  Mating. — The  same  general  methods  of  mating  must 
be  appHed  in  mating  Rose-Comb  Buff  Leghorn  fowls  as  are 
necessary  for  success  in  the  case  of  the  Single-Comb  Buff  Leg- 
horns. Unusual  attention,  however,  must  be  given  to  selection 
for  combs  and  ear  lobes.  These  are  the  weak  points  in  fowls 
of  this  variety,  and  if  a  breeder  is  to  be  successful,  they  must 
be  watched  and  improved  by  careful  selection. 


SILVER  LEGHORN 

46.  Since  1894  a  variety  of  Leghorn,  now  known  as  the 
Silver  Leghorn,  has  been  described  in  the  American  Stand- 
ard as  the  Silver  Duckwing  Leghorn.  This  variety  has  also 
been  commonly  called  Duckwing  Leghorn  and  Golden  Duckwing 
Leghorn.     In  the  revision  of  the  American  Standard  of  1910 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  523 

the  name  was  changed  to  Silver  Leghorn.  Only  one  variety  is 
recognized  by  the  American  Standard,  but  the  English  Stand- 
ard recognizes  two  varieties,  the  Silver  Duckwing  Leghorn 
and  the  Golden  Duckwing  Leghorn. 

47.  Origin. — The  Silver  Leghorn  is  said  to  have  been 
originated  by  G.  Payne,  of  England.  It  has  been  stated  that 
this  variety  was  made  by  crossing  Leghorns  with  the  Yoko- 
hama, or  Japanese,  game  fowls  having  the  same  colors  as  the 
Silver  Duckwing.  Other  crosses  have  been  made  with  Leg- 
horns and  Silver-Gray  Dorkings,  and  with  Leghorns  and  Silver 
Duckwing  Games.  Mr.  Payne  was  also  the  originator  of  the 
Pyle  Leghorn,  and  both  varieties  were  in  process  of  development 
at  the  same  time. 

48.  Development. — The  Silver  Leghorn  was  developed 
largely  by  Mr.  Payne  and  Mr.  Terrot,  of  England.  For  a  long 
time  the  fowls  lacked  Leghorn  breed  characters,  but  their 
defects  have  been  greatly  improved,  and  good  specimens  have 
recently  been  seen. 

49.  History. — In  the  development  of  the  Pyle  Leghorn, 
offspring  were  produced,  especially  females,  having  a  light-gray 
instead  of  a  brown  body  color.  It  has  been  stated  that  such 
females  were  mated  with  Yokohama  males  of  the  color  of  the 
Silver  Duckwing.  Other  matings  were  made  of  Silver  Duck- 
wing Game  females  with  males  from  the  crosses  made  to  pro- 
duce the  Pyle  variety.  In  other  attempts  to  produce  Silver 
Duckwing  Leghorns,  White  Leghorns  and  Duckwing  Game 
males  were  bred  together,  and  White  Leghorns  were  also  bred 
with  Silver-Gray  Dorkings.  Bad  comb  and  body  formation 
and  red  ear  lobes  in  the  offspring  resulted  from  all  these  crosses. 
Following  their  introduction  at  the  Crystal  Palace  show,  Lon- 
don, in  1886,  these  early  Silver  Duckwing  Leghorns  were  taken 
up  by  a  few  fanciers,  who  gradually  developed  them  into  fowls 
of  Leghorn  shape  having  the  same  plumage  color  that  is  required 
for  both  the  Silver  and  the  Golden  Duckwing  Game  fowls. 
Duckwing  Leghorns  of  medium  quality  were  shown  in  the 
United  States  about  1890,  and  a  description  of  them  appeared 
in  the  American  Standard  of  1894.     In  the  English  Standard 


524  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

they  are  known  as  Silver   Duckwing  Leghorns  and  Golden 
Duck  wing  Leghorns. 

50.  Description. — The  Silver  Leghorn  should  have  the 
same  breed  characters  and  body  formation  as  other  Leghorns. 
The  color  description  is  the  same  as  for  the  Silver  Duckwing 
Game  fowls.  The  male  has  glossy  black  on  the  throat,  breast, 
and  body,  including  the  tail  plumage;  the  top  color  is  silvery 
white,  with  white  hackle  marked  with  a  narrow  black  stripe; 
the  wing  bars  are  black,  glossed  with  a  metallic  blue;  the  beak, 
shanks,  and  toes  of  both  males  and  females  are  yellow;  the  ear 
lobes  are  white;  and  the  face,  comb,  wattles,  and  eyes  are  red. 
The  only  difference  in  the  color  of  the  Golden  Duckwing  and 
the  Silver  Duckwing  Leghorn  males  is  that  the  top  color  of  one 
is  a  deep,  rich  golden,  and  of  the  other  is  a  silvery  white. 

As  described  in  the  American  Standard,  the  Silver  Leghorn 
females  have  a  silvery-gray  hackle,  and  in  the  English  Standard 
they  are  described  as  having  a  silvery -white  hackle,  both  striped 
with  black.  The  body  plumage,  according  to  the  American 
Standard,  is  light  gray ;  according  to  the  English  Club  Standards 
it  is  a  delicate  silver  or  French  gray.  In  both,  the  body  color 
is  described  as  stippled  with  a  darker  shade.  The  breast  and 
under  parts  are  salmon,  shading  to  a  lighter  color  at  the  thighs ; 
the  tail  should  be  a  darker  gray  than  the  body  color.  The 
American  Standard  permits  black  tail  feathers,  the  topmost 
ones  to  be  penciled  with  gray.  The  most  beautiful  exhibition 
specimens  shown  in  England  have  dark-gray  tail  feathers  that 
grow  lighter  on  the  uppermost  feathers.  The  difference 
between  the  Golden  and  the  Silver  Duckwing  Leghorn  females 
is  that  the  Golden  Duckwings  have  a  dark-gray  plumage  color, 
penciled  with  a  darker  gray  or  black,  and  the  Silver  Duckwings 
have  a  very  light-gray  plumage  color,  penciled  with  a  darker 
shade. 

51.  Mating. — The  great  difiEictdty  in  breeding  Silver  Leg- 
horns is  to. produce  females  of  a  clean,  clear,  French  gray  as 
called  for  in  England.  Under  the  American  Standard,  light 
gray  is  permissible.  This  description  permits  a  darker  shade 
than  would  be  desirable  in  the  golden  variety.     Some  males, 


#  I- 

3- 

2 

§ 

a 


^. 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  525 

acceptable  for  exhibition  as  Silver  Leghorns,  may  be  bred  from 
matings  of  fairly  dark  fowls,  but  to  produce  the  beautiful  sur- 
face color  in  females,  very  light-colored  males  must  be  used. 
The  American  Standard  calls  for  gray  under  plumage.  The 
most  beautiful  fowls  are  produced  from  mating  fowls  that  have 
very  light  under  pltimage;  for  the  production  of  the  golden 
variety,  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  same  shade  of  color  in  the 
male  breeding  fowls  that  is  most  desirable  in  the  Golden  Duck- 
wing  Game  males  for  exhibition.  The  same  shade  of  color 
should  exist  in  the  females  that  exists  in  the  most  desirable 
females  of  the  Golden  Duckwing  Game  fowls.  Both  the  males 
and  the  females  for  the  production  of  the  silver  variety,  which 
is  the  only  one  recognized  by  the  American  Standard,  should 
have  the  clear  surface  color  of  the  kind  described  in  the 
Standard. 

WHITE  LEGHORN 


SINGLE-COMB    WHITE    LEGHORN 

52.  Of  all  the  many  varieties  of  Leghorns,  none  has  ever 
been  so  popular  or  bred  in  such  large  numbers  as  the  Single- 
Comb  White  Leghorn.  Careful  investigation  reveals  the 
fact  that  the  first  white  fowls  of  Spanish  or  Italian  ancestry 
that  were  brought  to  America  had  white  shanks  and  skin. 
Judging  from  the  color  of  shanks  and  skin,  the  first  Black 
Leghorns  brought  into  New  England  were,  like  the  whites, 
of  Minorca  ancestry.  This  fact  is  mentioned  in  support  of  a 
belief,  which  has  been  entertained  to  some  extent,  that  the 
Minorca  was  the  original  Spanish  fowl,  and  that  it  had  the 
peculiarity  of  white  skin  and  shanks,  and  that,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  Leghorns  belonged  exclusively  to  Italy  and  possessed 
yellow  shanks  and  skin.  In  substantiation  of  this,  William 
Simpson,  of  West  Farms,  New  York,  in  a  letter  states  that  in 
the  year  1853  he  purchased  from  a  ship  a  White  Leghorn  cock, 
four  White  Leghorn  hens,  and  one  Blue  Leghorn  hen.  They 
differed  from  the  Leghorn  fowls  of  the  present  in  that  they 
were  somewhat  larger  and  had  white  shanks.     In  1860,  Mr. 


526  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

Simpson  and  others  imported  White  Leghorns  having  yellow 
shanks  and  toes.  The  claim  has  been  made,  and  it  is  fully 
substantiated,  that  Spanish  and  Italian  fowls  were  brought 
into  the  United  States  as  early  as  1835,  or  earlier. 

53.  Origin. — The  making  of  the  exhibition  Single-Comb 
White  Leghorns  of  America  was  begim  with  the  careful  breed- 
ing of  the  White  Leghorn  fowls  that  came  from  Italy,  by  a 
few  fanciers  in  the  state  of  New  York.  As  made  by  the  fan- 
ciers of  the  United  States,  the  White  Leghorn  was  recognized 
by  the  American  Standard  of  1875,  and  from  time  to  time,  as 
the  fowls  have  been  improved,  the  Standard  has  been  altered. 

54.  Development. — ^Leghorns  have  been  developed  very 
differently  in  America,  in  England,  and  in  Australia.  The 
type  of  Leghorn  most  admired  in  America  is  one  with  distinctive 
breed  characters.  It  has  been  developed  into  a  fowl  of  ideal 
character,  both  for  exhibition  and  utility  purposes.  The 
English  fanciers  have  altered  the  Single-Comb  White  Leghorn, 
by  the  introduction  of  Minorca  blood,  until  they  have  made  a 
fowl  of  different  type — one  much  larger  and  less  prolific  than 
the  American  type.  In  Australia,  Single-Comb  White  Leg- 
horns have  been  developed  midway  in  type  and  size  between 
the  English  and  the  American  types. 

Where  they  are  bred  in  America  entirely  for  egg  production 
and  market  purposes,  more  size  has  been  developed  than  is 
usually  sought  in  fowls  for  exhibition,  yet  the  size  of  the  utility 
Leghorns  in  America  does  not  equal  that  of  those  bred  in 
Australia. 

55.  History. — Leghorns,  as  bred  in  America  in  1890,  were 
of  indifferent  size ;  in  fact,  they  were  much  too  small  either  for 
market  poultry  or  for  producing  eggs  of  size  that  woiild  com- 
pare favorably  with  the  eggs  of  fowls  of  other  breeds.  Since 
that  time,  the  size  of  these  fowls  has  been  gradually  increased 
until  it  is  not  unusual  to  have  flocks  of  yearHng  hens  that  will 
average  4  pounds  each,  and  males  that  wiU  weigh  over  6  pounds 
each.  The  eggs  produced  from  a  well-selected  flock  of  Leg- 
horns will  average  over  2  oimces  each,  or  from  24  to  26  oimces 
per  dozen. 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  527 

At  about  the  same  time,  the  EngHsh  fanciers  began  to  change 
the  Leghorns,  and,  in  fact,  all  the  Mediterranean  fowls  into 
larger  proportions,  greater  weight,  and  a  body  formation  more 
like  the  Dorking.  They  have  also  bred  larger  combs  on  Leg- 
horns than  have  ever  been  countenanced  in  America. 

In  Australia,  the  poultry  breeders  first  attempted  to  improve 
the  Single-Comb  White  Leghorn  by  producing  as  large  a  fowl 
as  possible  without  diminishing  its  egg-producing  powers. 
The  Australian  breeders  have  accomplished  their  purpose  well, 
and  in  addition  have  secured  a  good  type  of  Leghorn  for  exhi- 
bition. Though  the  Australian  exhibition  Single-Comb  White 
Leghorn  does  not  conform  entirely  to  the  description  in  the 
American  Standard,  it  comes  nearer  to  the  American  than  to 
the  English  type.  The  experts  of  Australia  now  declare  that 
they  have  reached  the  limit  of  size  in  the  Leghorns  that  it  is 
possible  to  get  without  sacrificing  any  of  the  prolific  egg-pro- 
ducing powers  of  the  breed;  the  English  experts  admit  that 
they  have  developed  the  Leghorn  beyond  the  size  that  will  give 
the  most  prolific  egg  yield.  The  results  of  the  breeding  opera- 
tions in  these  two  countries  emphasize  the  fact  that  each  breed 
and  its  varieties  have  been  made  for  a  definite  purpose,  and 
that  to  get  the  best  results  out  of  the  fowls  of  the  different 
breeds  it  is  necessary  to"  keep  their  size  within  reasonable  limits. 

56.  Descrlptloii. — The  first  description  of  Leghorn  fowls 
published  in  America  was  printed  in  the  Halsted  Standard  of 
1867,  which  mentioned  both  Single-  and  Rose-Comb  White 
Leghorns,  and  the  Dominique  Leghorn.  The  Halsted  Stand- 
ard described  the  head  of  the  males  as  short  and  deep;  the 
eyes,  large,  and  full;  the  neck,  long  and  well  arched;  the  breast, 
full,  round,  and  carried  well  forwards;  the  body,  rather  square 
but  heaviest  forwards;  the  tail,  large  and  full,  and  carried 
upright;  the  shanks,  long;  the  carriage,  upright  and  pleasing. 
The  description  of  the  female  conformed  to  that  of  the  male. 
In  the  original  Standard  of  the  American  Poultry  Association 
of  1875,  no  Rose-Comb  Leghorns  were  mentioned,  but  in  the 
Standard  of  1893,  rose-comb  and  single-comb  varieties  of  both 
the  Brown  and  the  White  Leghorns  were  described.     From 


528 


MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS 


§11 


that  time  to  the  present,  the  general  form  of  the  Leghorn  has 
been  undergoing  a  gradual  change,  until  this  fowl  now  has  a 
longer  body  formation  than  formerly,  more  length  in  front  and 
in  rear  of  the  shank  line,  and  an  abdomen  to  conform  with  the 
breast  and  body  formation.  The  head  is  of  moderate  length, 
the  neck  is  long  and  arched,  the  back  and  body  formation  is 
of  medium  length,  and  is  deep,  round,  and  full.  The  greatest 
alteration  in  Standard  description  recently  has  been  in  the 
description  of  the  tail  formation. 

The  back  of  a  well-formed  Single-Comb  White  Leghorn  exhi- 
bition male  should  form  a  half  moon  from  the  hackle  to  the 
base  of  the  tail ;  the  tail  should  be  carried  well  back  and  down, 
but  not  so  low  as  is  preferred  in  the  exhibition  games  or  in  the 
Hamburgs.  The  Standard  states  that  the  tail  should  be  car- 
ried at  an  angle  of  45  degrees,  but  many  judges,  in  placing 
awards,  give  preference  in  the  show  room  to  lower  tail  carriage  ^ 
than  this.  The  tail  of  the  females  should  be  spread  like  a 
half -opened  fan,  as  shown  in  Fig.  1  (a),  and,  as  viewed  from  the 

rear,  should  be  slightly 
A-shaped,  as  illustrated 
in  Fig.  1  (&).  This  tail 
should  not  be  so  much 
A-shaped  as  the  tail  of 
the  Brahma  or  that  of  the 
Wyandotte,  but  enough 
to  build  out  the  saddle 
and  coverts  about  the 
tail,  thus  forming  a  more 
attractively  shaped  back.  The  breast  and  body  formation  of 
both  males  and  females  should  be  full  and  rounding;  the  breast 
shoiild  be  wide  between  the  thighs;  the  abdomen  should  be 
full  for  the  size  of  the  fowl,  and  of  a  shape  that  makes  a  round- 
ing body  formation  from  the  point  of  the  breast  in  front  of  the 
shoiilder  down  between  the  thighs  and  up  to  the  lowest  feather 
of  the  tail ;  the  body  should  be  fairly  long,  deep  from  the  top  of 
the  back  to  the  bottom  of  the  breastbone,  and  wide  at  the  center 
of  the  wing;  all  of  these  parts  should,  however,  be  in  proportion 
to  the  size  and  the  breed  characters  of  the  Leghorn  fowls. 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  529 

The  head  points  of  all  Leghorns  should  be  carefully  con- 
sidered, as  in  the  Standard  they  are  valued  at  34  points.  To 
secure  credit  for  all,  or  even  for  the  greater  part,  of  these  points, 
the  head,  and  particularly  the  comb,  of  a  Single-Comb  White 
Leghorn  must  be  of  attractive  formation.  The  comb  should 
be  of  medium  size  and  evenly  serrated,  with  five  points;  the 
heel  of  the  comb  should  roimd  up  from  the  base  and  stand 
away  from  the  head.  The  comb  of  the  Single-Comb  White 
Leghorn  male  should  not  follow  the  shape  of  the  head  and  neck, 
but  should  grow  in  an  almost  straight  line  back  from  the  top 
of  the  head.  The  wattles  must  be  of  beautiful  formation,  and 
the  ear  lobes  should  be  almond  shaped,  large,  and  smooth,  like 
kid,  in  texture,  and  of  pure  enamel  white.  The  comb  of  the 
female  should  be  of  the  same  general  formation  as  that  of  the 
male,  except  that  four  of  its  points  should  fall  over  to  one  side, 
the  first  or  front  point  standing  erect.  A  single  loop  only  is 
permissible  in  the  comb  of  the  female.  The  wattles  and  ear 
lobes  should  be  as  beautifully  finished  as  those  of  the  male.  The 
eyes  of  both  sexes  should  be  round,  full,  clear,  and  bright  red; 
and  the  beak,  shanks,  and  toes  should  be  golden  yellow. 

The  color  illustrations  of  Leghorns  show  the  three  types 
most  popular  in  the  show  room.  The  color  illustration  of  the 
Single-Comb  White  Leghorns  represents  the  style  of  Leghorns 
most  popular  from  1908  to  1912.  The  color  illustration  of  the 
Single-Comb  Brown  Leghorns  is  a  portrait  of  living  fowls  that 
were  the  best  during  the  same  period.  The  color  illustration 
of  the  Rose-Comb  Buff  Leghorns  shows  the  body  formation 
that  has  been  most  popular ;  and  in  addition  it  shows  the  style 
of  rose  comb  considered  best  for  all  Rose-Comb  Leghorns. 

The  plumage  of  White  Leghorns  should  be  pure  white 
throughout,  including  the  quill  and  the  under  flttff  of  the 
feathers.  The  skin,  beak,  shanks,  and  toes  should  be  yellow; 
the  ear  lobes,  white;  and  the  combs,  face,  wattles,  and  eyes, 
red.  It  has  always  been  difficult  to  maintain  pure  white  in 
the  ear  lobes  and  a  golden  color  in  the  shanks  and  toes.  A 
number  of  the  offspring  will  have  a  creamy  tint,  and  many  a 
distinct  yellowish  tinge  in  their  ear  lobes.  Pure  white  ear 
lobes  are  an  absolute  necessity  in  the  show  room. 


530  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

57.  Mating. — In  mating  Single-Comb  White  Leghorns 
for  the  production  of  exhibition  fowls,  only  males  and  females 
having  perfect  breed  characters,  pure  white  plumage,  beautiful 
heads,  combs,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes,  and  bright  red  eyes, 
should  be  selected.  It  will  be  impossible  to  succeed  in  pro- 
ducing good  offspring  unless  the  males  and  females  in  the 
matings  are  practically  perfect.  Special  attention  must  be  given 
to  the  selection  of  breeders  with  beautifiil  combs.  Only  fowls 
with  ear  lobes  of  perfect  shape  and  color  can  be  depended  on 
to  reproduce  offspring  with  ear  lobes  of  the  proper  type.  It 
is  possible  to  succeed  with  old  hens  that  have  white,  or  nearly 
white,  shanks.  From  such  females,  fowls  with  beautiful  plu- 
mage color  are  often  bred.  The  color  of  the  shanks  in  the 
offspring  will  be  much  improved  if  they  are  permitted  to 
range  through  grass  and  clover  fields. 

Tail  plumage  is  of  prime  importance  in  Single-Comb  White 
Leghorns  for  breeders.  Only  females  that  have  well-spread 
tails  are  suited  for  the  matings.  The  males  should  have  an 
excessive  amount  of  saddle  plumage,  long,  flowing  sickles,  and 
a  full  main  tail  that  is  well  spread  and  carried  somewhat  lower 
than  is  described  in  the  Standard.  The  tails  of  the  females 
used  for  breeding  exhibition  males  should  be  carried  lower 
than  is  necessary  in  females  for  producing  exhibition  pullets. 
Leghorn  fowls  that  conform  closely  to  the  Standard  description 
when  seen  at  freedom  and  posing  in  a  natural  position  are  the 
ones  that  can  be  depended  on  to  reproduce  offspring  of  the 
finest  exhibition  quality. '    • 

ROSE -COMB    WHITE    LEGHORN 

58.  Origin. — Many  theories  have  been  advanced  con- 
cerning the  origin  of  the  Rose -Comb  Wliite  Leghorn.     The 

accepted  opinion  at  the  present  time  is  that  this  variety  orig- 
inated from  crossing  Single-Comb  White  Leghorn  with  Rose- 
Comb  White  Hamburg  fowls,  and  was  developed  by  selecting 
and  mating  the  best  offspring  of  this  cross. 

59.  Development. — The  Rose-Comb  White  Leghorn  has 
been  developed  not  by  any  one  fancier^  or  by  any  group  of  fan- 
ciers, but  by  poultry  fanciers  throughout  the  world. 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  531 

60.  History. — The  home  of  the  original  Rose-Comb 
White  Leghorns  in  America  was  in  New  England  and  in  New 
York  State.  The  secretary  of  the  Rose-Comb  White  Leghorn 
Club  of  America,  writing  the  history  of  this  variety  of  fowls, 
states  that  he  has  been  unable  to  trace  definitely  their  origin, 
development,  and  history;  and  that  after  a  diligent  search 
for  authentic  information,  he  has  accepted  as  final  the  belief 
that  they  were  originated  as  just  stated. 

61.  Description. — The  Rose-Comb  White  Leghorns 
should  have  the  same  general  breed  characters  as  required 
for  all  Leghorns,  except  that  they  must  have  a  rose  comb  of 
medium  size  fashioned  after  the  Hamburg  comb,  but  smaller 
and  more  delicately  formed. 

62.  Mating. — Fowls  having  the  same  general  breed  char- 
acters necessary  for  producing  Single-Comb  White  Leghorns, 
must  be  selected  for  matings  of  the  Rose-Comb  White  Leghorns, 
and  careful  attention  must  be  given  to  selecting  fowls  having 
small,  beautifully  formed,  and  evenly  serrated  combs,  with 
small,  projecting  points;  the  heel  of  the  comb  should  stand  out 
from  the  back  of  the  head,  but  not  so  much  as  the  comb  of  the 
Hamburg.  If  satisfactory  results  are  to  be  obtained,  equal 
attention  must  be  given  to  selecting  both  males  and  females 
with  the  proper  comb  formations.  The  combs  on  the  fowls  in 
the  color  illustration  of  the  Rose-Comb  Buff  Leghorn  are  of 
the  proper  formation. 

NON-STANDARD  VARIETIES  OF  LEGHORN 


BLUE    LEGHORN 

63.  Blue  Leghorn  fowls  have  frequently  appeared  in 
many  localities  throughout  the  world,  but  it  was  left  for  the 
English  fanciers  to  bring  them  into  public  notice.  Many  of 
them  were  shown  at  the  International  Show  of  1908  in  London. 
At  this  show  more  fowls  of  the  blue  variety  were  shown  than 
of  any  of  the  other  varieties.  A  few  weeks  afterwards  there 
was  a  noticeable  display  of  Blue  Leghorns  at  Leeds,  England. 


532  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

It  is  said  of  this  display  that  the  quality  was  splendid  and  that 
there  also  the  blue  fowls  outnumbered  those  of  all  the  other 
varieties  shown. 

64.  Origin. — The  Blue  Leghorn  was  produced  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  Blue  Andalusian  and  all  the  other  blue-plumaged 
fowls;  that  is,  by  the  promiscuous  intermingling  of  black  and 
of  white  fowls  in  their  native  lands.  The  make-up  of  fowls  of 
this  color  is  fully  told  in  the  description  of  the  Andalusian 
fowls. 

65.  Development. — During  recent  years,  unusual  care 
has  been  given  in  England  to  the  development  of  this  variety. 
In  fact,  more  attention  has  been  bestowed  on  them  there 
within  the  past  10  years  than  ever  before.  Since  blue  fowls 
have  been  increasing  in  popular  favor.  Blue  Leghorns  have 
been  developed  by  selecting  and  mating  the  best  specimens 
that  could  be  found. 

66.  History. — Since  the  increased  popularity  of  blue- 
plumaged  fowls,  the  English  poultry  press  has  given  them 
much  publicity  and  has  said  much  in  their  favor.  As  a  result 
of  this,  the  Blue  Leghorn  is  one  of  the  most  popular  Mediter- 
ranean fowls  in  England. 

67.  Description. — The  Blue  Leghorn  is  a  perfect  Leg- 
horn in  form  and  general  make-up,  according  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean type,  which  is  most  highly  esteemed  in  England.  The 
fowls  are  of  large  size,  bordering  on  the  Minorca  type,  with 
larger  combs  than  are  admired  for  Leghorns  in  America.  Their 
plumage  is  blue  throughout,  with  a  darker  metallic  shade  of 
blue  in  the  hackle  and  saddle  of  the  males;  the  beak  is  horn 
color;  and  in  the  shanks  and  feet,  yellow  or  orange  is  pre- 
ferred. One  English  club  standard  says  that  the  shanks  and 
toes  shall  be  yellow  or  orange;  the  plumage,  one  even  shade  of 
blue  from  head  to  tail;  and  the  hackle  and  saddle  of  males, 
darker  blue.     Any  trace  of  foreign  color  is  objectionable. 

68.  Mating. — For  mating  with  Blue  Leghorns,  Cuckoo,  or 
Dominique,  Leghorns  have  been  used.  The  alien  blood  in  this 
variety  may  have  done  more  or  less  harm  to  the  Blue  Leghorns. 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  533 

Andalusian  blood  can  be  used  with  greater  safety.  Those 
who  have  succeeded  best  with  the  Blue  Leghorns  advise  the 
selection  and  mating  of  only  the  best  fowls  that  can  be  secured. 
In  some  instances  the  best  males  are  bred  from  females  that  are 
much  too  dark  for  exhibition,  and  the  best  females  are  some- 
times bred  from  males  having  the  proper  shade  of  color,  mated 
with  females  perfect  in  color,  both  males  and  females  having 
perfectly  colored  wings  and  tails.  The  color  of  the  under 
plumage  of  these  fowls  is  of  great  importance;  it  should  be  of 
a  lighter  shade  of  blue  than  the  surface  color.  Some  call  this 
slaty  blue ;  others  call  it  a  dark  or  bluish  gray,  but  it  should  be 
blue,  a  tint  or  two  lighter  than  the  surface  color. 


DOMINIQUE    LEGHORN 

69.  The  Dominique  Leghorn  was  described  in  the  Hal- 
sted  Standard,  and  also  in  the  original  Standard  of  the  American 
Poultry  Association,  but  was  omitted  from  the  Standard  of 
1898,  and  since  that  time  has  not  been  recognized  in  the  Amer- 
ican Standard.  In  England  the  variety  is  known  as  Cuckoo 
Leghorn,  and  the  fowls  are  described  in  the  English  Standard 
as  Leghorns  of  true  form  and  as  having  plumage  color  the  same 
as  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks. 

70.  Origin. — How  the  original  Dominique  Leghorn  fowls 
were  made  can  only  be  surmised.  It  is  logical  to  suppose  that 
they  would  occur  naturally  in  mixed  flocks  of  Black  and  of 
White  Leghorns.  Those  that  have  been  produced  during  recent 
years  have  come  from  crossing  Black  Leghorn  males  having 
fine,  white  ear  lobes  and  good  colored  shanks  and  feet  with 
Black  Plymouth  Rock  females.  Their  offspring  have  been 
selected  and  bred  for  breed  characters  and  Cuckoo  color 
(barred  plumage),  until  a  variety  of  more  than  ordinary  qual- 
ity has  been  obtained. 

71.  Development. — The  development  of  the  Dominique 
Leghorns  during  recent  years  has  been  carried  on  entirely  by 
the  fanciers  of  England,  who  have  made  and  developed  the 
fowls  to  their  present  type. 


534  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

72.  History. — The  early  Cuckoo,  or  Dominique,  Leg- 
horns, as  seen  in  America,  were  small  and  unevenly  barred  or 
marked  with  the  plumage  color  of  the  Dominiques.  But  few 
had  distinct  bars  across  their  plumage.  They  deteriorated 
so  much  that  they  were  dropped  from  the  Standard  of  1898. 
Later,  the  English  fanciers  renewed  their  interest  in  them,  and 
since  1900,  a  few  good  specimens  have  been  seen  at  some  of 
the  leading  English  exhibitions. 

73.  Description. — The  English  Standard  describes  the 
Cuckoo,  or  Dominique,  Leghorn  fowls  as  having  the  general 
breed  characters  that  are  desirable  in  all  varieties  of  Leghorns. 
Their  plumage  should  have  color  and  markings  throughout 
the  same  as  in  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks.  Only  a  few  have 
been  produced  that  have  met  the  requirements  of  the  Stand- 
ard. In  America,  they  should  have  the  same  form  as  other 
American  Leghorns,  and  plumage  like  the  Barred  Plymouth 
Rocks. 

74.  Mating. — To  succeed  with  this  variety,  only  the  best 
males  and  females  that  can  be  obtained  must  be  selected  and 
bred.  The  breed  characters  must  have  due  consideration, 
and  careful  attention  mUvSt  be  given  to  the  selection  of  fowls 
having  desirable  combs  and  ear  lobes,  and  yellow  beaks,  shanks, 
and  toes.  The  fowls  are  usually  more  or  less  deficient  in  these 
respects.  In  breeding  for  the  production  of  color,  the  same 
methods  of.  mating  should  be  followed  that  are  practiced  in 
standard  matings  for  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks. 


MOTTLED    LEGHORN 

75.     There  are  several  varieties  of  Mottled  Leghorn,  the 

most  prominent  of  which  are  the  Black-and- White  Mottled  and 
the  Red-and-White  Mottled.  The  Black-and-White  Mottled 
Leghorn  has  plumage  marked  like  the  Mottled  Java  or  the 
Spangled  Orpington.  The  Red-and-White  Mottled  Leghorn 
has  a  mixture  of  white  and  brownish  red  evenly  distributed. 
There  is  no  proof  that  these  two  varieties  had  a  common 
origin.     It  may  be  that  the  Black-and-White  Mottled  have 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  533 

come  from  the  Anconas  and  the  others  from  badly  marked 
offspring  that  occurred  in  an  attempt  to  produce  the  Pyle  Leg- 
horn. These  varieties  are  not  considered  as  standard  bred  in 
any  locality,  but  are  mentioned  from  time  to  time  more  as  a 
novelty  to  be  exhibited  in  the  "any-other- variety"  classes  than 
as  separate  varieties.  

PARTRIDGE    LEGHORN 

76.  Origin. — The  Partridge  Leghorn  has  been  known 
to  exist  in  Denmark  for  many  years.  It  is  thought  that  the 
first  of  these  fowls  seen  in  England  were  brought  from  Den- 
mark. As  they  now  exist,  they  have  been  made  by  crossing 
Brown  Leghorn  males  with  Partridge  Wyandotte  females. 

77.  Development. — The  greatest  development  in  the 
Partridge  Leghorn  has  been  accomplished  in  England,  and  some 
attempts  toward  the  improvement  of  the  variety  have  been 
made  in  New  York  State. 

78.  History. — When  first  brought  to  America,  Brown 
Leghorns  were  of  irregular  color  and  markings.  Later,  when 
a  strain  of  cockerel-breeding  Brown  Leghorns  had  been  estab- 
lished, many  of  the  female  offspring  had  irregular  markings 
in  their  plumage.  These  were  selected  and  from  them  a  strain 
of  partridge-colored  Leghorns  was  started.  The  penciling  in. 
the  females  has  been  acquired  by  mating  Brown  Leghorns  with 
Partridge  Wyandottes,  and  selecting  and  remating  the  best 
offspring,  year  after  year,  until  partridge-colored  Leghorns 
having  fairly  good  color  and  markings  were  obtained. 

79.  Description. — The  Partridge  Leghorns  should  be  the 
same  in  form  and  head  points  as  the  other  varieties  of  Leghorns. 
The  plimiage  color  should  be  the  same  as  described  for 
Partridge  Wyandottes. 

80.  Mating. — In  mating  Partridge  Leghorns,  the  breeder 
has  the  same  difficulties  to  contend  with  as  in  mating  for  plu- 
mage color  in  Partridge  Cochins  and  Partridge  Wyandottes. 
The  same  rules  for  the  selection  of  breeders  and  for  mating 
apply  to  the  mating  of  all  three  varieties.     In  mating  Partridge 


536  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

Leghorns,  unusual  care  should  be  taken  to  select  fowls  that 
have  proper  head  points,  including  the  ear  lobes.  The  beak, 
shanks,  and  toes  should  be  yellow. 


PYLE    LEGHORN 

81.  Origin. — The  credit  for  having  originated  the  Pyle 
Leghorn  belongs  to  G.  Payne,  of  England,  who  mated  White 
Leghorn  males  with  Brown  Leghorn  females.  The  offspring 
thus  produced  were  carefully  selected  and  the  best  were  mated, 
the  breeders  being  selected  on  the  same  lines  as  Pyle  Game 
fowls  for  producing  proper  color  and  markings  are  selected. 

82.  Development. — In  the  development  of  Pyle  Leg- 
horns, Brown  Leghorn  females  showing  more  or  less  white 
in  their  plumage  were  bred  with  White  Leghorn  males;  Brown 
Leghorn  males  were  mated  with  White  Leghorn  females,  and 
the  best  offspring  from  these  crosses  were  selected  and  mated 
in  a  manner  that  has  produced  fowls  of  color  and  markings 
equal  in  beauty  to  the  Pyle  Game  fowls. 

83.  History. — The  Pyle  Leghorn  has  been  bred  by  various 
fanciers  throughout  the  world,  who  have  made  and  developed 
the  fowls  into  creditable  quality.  Some  of  the  Pyle  Leghorn 
pullets  that  have  won  at  the  leading  shows  of  America  have 
come  from  the  promiscuous  intermingling  of  Brown  and  White 
Leghorns. 

84.  Description. — The  Pyle  Leghorn  has  the  same  breed 
characters  as  other  varieties  of  Leghorn,  with  color  and  mark- 
ings like  the  Pyle  Gam.e  fowls.  In  both  males  and  females, 
the  beaks,  shanks,  and  toes  are  yellow;  the  eyes,  comb,  wattles, 
and  face,  bright  red;  and  the  ear  lobes,  white.  In  the  males, 
the  head  and  the  hackle  plumage  are  bright  orange ;  the  breast, 
body,  and  thighs,  white;  the  back,  wing  bows,  and  saddle, 
red,  dark  red,  or  maroon;  the  wing  bars,  white;  the  wing  bays, 
chestnut;  and  the  main  tail  sickles  and  coverts,  white.  The 
plumage  of  the  females  is  white  throughout,  except  the  neck 
hackle,  which  is  tinged  with  gold,  or  orange;  the  breast  is 
salmon,  shading  to  white  at  the  thighs;  both  males  and  females 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  537 

should  be  free  from  markings  or  splotches  of  any  kind  in  the 
white  plimiage. 

85.  Mating. — Pyle  Leghorn  males  that  have  a  dark  shade 
of  red,  mated  with  females  that  have  a  deep  or  rich  shade  of 
salmon  on  the  breast  produce  offspring  of  better  color  than  are 
likely  to  come  from  matings  of  lighter-colored  fowls.  To 
increase  or  intensify  this  color,  in  future  generations  males 
selected  from  a  pullet-breeding  strain  of  Brown  Leghorns  that 
have  little  or  no  striping  in  the  hackle  or  saddle  plumage  should 
be  selected  for  breeding  with  the  Pyle  Leghorns.  No  striping 
is  permissible  in  the  hackle  or  saddle  feathers  of  the  Pyle  Leg- 
horns, and  bright  yellow  shanks  and  beaks  are  necessities. 
To  improve  the  color,  the  methods  necessary  for  the  produc- 
tion of  the  best  color  in  Pyle  Games  should  be  applied  to  this 
variety.  

MINORCA 


ORIGIN  AND  DEVELOPMENT 

86.  Origin. — Some  writers  have  claimed  that  the  Minorca 
fowls  were  the  foundation  stock  from  which  the  Black  Spanish 
have  come.  Others  claim  that  the  Minorcas  were  the  first 
fowls  brought  to  America,  and  that  they  were  called  Leghorns. 
At  all  events,  Minorcas  were  formerly  much  smaller  than  at 
the  present  time.  In  writing  of  Minorcas,  Edward  Brown,  of 
England,  claims  that  a  fowl  known  as  the  Castilian  was  the 
original  type,  not  only  of  the  Minorcas  but  of  the  other  Mediter- 
ranean fowls  as  well.  He  states:  "We  have  no  direct  evi- 
dence as  to  the  origin  of  this  fowl,  but  in  Spain  it  is  believed 
by  many  that  it  was  introduced  during  the  time  when  the  Moors 
held  that  country,  and  it  is  often  called  the  Moorish  fowl.  It 
was  widely  distributed  throughout  old  Castile,  which  com- 
prises a  great  part  of  the  tablelands  to  the  north  of  Madrid, 
as  well  as  Andalusia;  and  Don  Salvador  Castello,  director  of 
the  poultry  school  at  Barcelona,  says  that  it  was  formerly 
known  in  the  provinces  of  Ciudad  Real  and  Zamora;  in  the 
last  named,  it  is  frequently  known  under  the  name  of  Zamorana, 


538  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

but,  as  already  notsd,  birds  more  or  less  of  the  same  type  have 
been  widely  distributed  and  may  be  accepted  as  the  common 
fowl  of  the  country.  Although  the  majority  are  black  in  plu- 
mage, there  is  considerable  variety  in  colorations  and  mark- 
ings, as  is  customary  where  care  in  selecting  has  not  been 
observed." 

The  early  illustrations  of  the  Castilians  and  the  Minorcas- 
show  the  former  to  be  a  more  finished  type  of  fowl  than  the 
Minorca,  and  the  illustrations  of  1800  show  the  Minorca  to  be 
a  black  fowl  of  early  Leghorn  type,  with  an  abundance  of  comb 
and  a  very  small,  partly  white  ear  lobe.  The  Castilians,  as 
shown  by  illustrations,  were  distinctively  Leghorns  in  the 
comb  of  both  males  and  females,  in  the  body  formation,  and 
in  the  shape  and  color  of  the  ear  lobes,  which  were  shown  as 
white. 

87.  Development. — The  Minorcas  were  developed  in 
England  more  than  in  America.  In  America,  they  were  trans- 
formed from  the  English  type  of  fowls  into  the  type  of  Minorca 
shown  in  the  color  illustration  of  Black  Minorcas.  They  were 
originally  of  many  colors,  and  the  first  that  were  developed  to 
any  extent  were  the  single-comb  blacks,  then  the  single-comb 
whites,  and,  following  these,  the  rose-comb  blacks  and  the 
rose-comb  whites.  Recently  the  cuckoo,  or  barred,  and  the 
blue  varieties  have  been  developed. 


BLACK  MINORCA 


SINGLE-COMB    BLACK    MINORCA 

88.  Origin. — The  modem  type  of  Single-Comb  Black 

Minorca  originated  from  the  best  fowls  of  their  kind  that 
could  be  selected  from  the  importations  from  their  home  coun- 
try. The  credit  for  their  origin  belongs  to  the  fanciers  of 
America  and  England. 

89.  Development. — The  Single-Comb  Black  Minorcas 
have  been  developed  along  different  lines  in  America  and  in 
England.     In  England  they  have  been  developed  into  larger 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  539 

fowls  than  are  preferred  in  America.  The  fanciers  of  England 
encourage  larger  combs  than  the  fanciers  of  America.  Of 
necessity,  the  methods  of  feeding  for  heavy  body  formation 
materially  increases  the  size  of  the  combs  and  wattles. 

90.  History. — More  than  a  centirry  ago  large,  black-plu- 
maged  fowls  having  ear  lobes  partly  white  were  brought  from 
the  island  of  Minorca,  in  the  Mediterranean  Sea  off  the  coast 
of  Spain,  into  England,  and  were  bred  for  egg  production  and 
for  market  poultry.  Shortly  after  their  introduction  into 
England,  English  travelers  visiting  the  island  of  Minorca^ 
selected  fowls  of  a  type  that  smted  them,  and  took  them  to 
England.  These  fowls  were  known  as  Minorcas,  as  Spanish, 
and  as  Red-Faced  Black  Spanish,  proving  that  there  were  fowls 
of  about  the  same  type,  though  some  had  red  and  some  had 
white  faces.  John  R.  Wood,  secretary  of  the  Minorca  Club 
of  England,  has  stated  that  he  could  trace  the  existence  of 
Minorcas  as  far  back  as  1870.  The  most  reasonable  informa- 
tion obtainable  warrants  the  statement  that  the  early  Spanish, 
the  Minorcas,  and  the  Leghorns  were  more  or  less  intermingled. 

When  the  Minorcas  became  exhibition  fowls,  efforts  were 
made  to  develop  them  into  fowls  of  larger  size  than  those  of 
any  other  Mediterranean  breed.  Crosses  were  made  with  the 
Black  Spanish  and  the  Black  Langshans.  The  claim  has  been 
made  that  the  Langshans  used  had  black  eyes  and  shanks  with- 
out feathering.  Following  these  crosses,  a  system  of  selection 
and  of  feeding  for  size  and  better  form  was  followed,  until  the 
present  type  of  Minorca  fowl  was  produced.  It  has  been 
claimed  that  fowls  known  as  Minorcas  were  brought  into  the 
state  of  New  York  about  1870,  but  they  did  not  exist  in  any 
numbers  in  America  imtil  about  1890.  Since  that  time,  rapid 
improvement  and  marked  changes  have  been  made  in  them 
both  in  England  and  in  America.  The  English  fanciers  have 
adopted  a  more  bulky  type  than  the  American  fanciers.  The 
fact  that  they  bear  confinement  well  and  lay  well  under  such 
conditions  has  made  them  popular  in  England.  Their  beauty 
for  exhibition  and  their  utility  as  producers  of  large  eggs  has 
made  them  popular  in  America. 


540  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

91.  Description. — The  shape  of  the  Single-Comb  Black 
Minorcas  as  bred  in  America  is  shown  in  the  color  illustration 
of  them.  The  accepted  type  as  bred  in  England  and  acknowl- 
edged by  the  Minorca  Club  of  that  country,  is  shown,  by  per- 
mission, in  Fig.  2.  The  head  of  the  Minorca  should  be  of  good 
length  and  of  fairly  good  breadth,  in  order  to  support  the  large 
comb.  The  comb  is  single;  its  width  should  be  such  as  to  con- 
form to  its  length,  height,  and  thickness;  it  should  have  enough 


strength  to  stand  erect  and  yet  be  of  fine  texture,  smooth,  and 
evenly  serrated.  Six  points  are  best  suited  to  the  Minorca 
comb,  although  some  of  fairly  good  appearance  have  five, 
and  some  have  seven  points.  The  ear  lobes  should  be  rather 
large  and  of  proportions  suited  to  the  size  of  the  head  and  its 
attachments. 

Large  combs,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  are  best  suited  to 
the  largest  males,  and  the  same  is  true,  proportionately,  of  the 
females.  The  neck  should  be  long  in  comparison  with  the 
body,  well  arched,  and  profusely  covered  with  hackle  feathers 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  541 

that  grow  well  down  over  the  shoulders;  they  are  naturally- 
longer  in  the  male  than  in  the  female.  The  comb  of  the  female 
should  hang  over  to  one  side.  There  should  be  a  double  fold 
at  or  near  the  end  of  the  comb  of  the  female;  and,  although 
the  comb  is  large,  it  should  not  entirely  obstruct  the  eyesight. 
The  eyes  of  the  Black  Minorcas  should  be  dark  or  nearly  black ; 
dark  brown  is  permissible,  but  red  or  light -colored  eyes  should 
almost  disqualify  a  Black  Minorca  for  exhibition,  though  such 
is  not  the  ruling  of  the  Standard.  Light-colored  eyes  indicate 
that  alien  crosses  have  been  made  in  a  strain  to  improve  size 
or  color.  The  body  formation,  including  the  back,  should 
be  long,  deep,  and  well  rounded,  with  a  full  breast,  long  breast- 
bone, and  good  abdominal  development. 

The  main  tail  feathers,  in  both  males  and  females,  should  be 
of  reasonably  good  length  and  be  moderately  spread;  sickles 
and  coverts  of  the  male  should  be  of  fairly  good  length.  The 
tail  carriage  should  be  about  as  shown  in  the  color  illustration 
of  the  Black  Minorcas.  The  thighs  and  shanks  should  be  of 
mediimi  length,  as  compared  with  the  great  length  of  leg  sought 
in  the  modem  type  of  Langshans;  to  conform  with  body  for- 
mation, they  should  be  proportionately  longer  than  the  thighs 
and  shanks  of  Leghorns.  The  general  carriage  of  the  male 
should  be  upright,  and  the  female  not  so  much  so.  The  shanks 
should  be  smooth  and  the  scales  even.  The  color  of  the  shanks 
and  feet  should  be  as  dark  as  it  is  possible  to  have  them; 
shiny  black  is  preferred;  slaty  black  is  objectionable.  Slaty 
black  shanks  have  come  to  the  Black  Minorcas  from  the  Black 
Spanish.  The  plumage  throughout  should  be  a  lustrous  black, 
brilliant  with  sheen.  Purple,  red,  or  other  foreign  color  of 
any  kind  in  the  plumage  is  objectionable.  Red  in  the  ear 
lobes  is  also  objectionable.  Formerly,  the  Minorcas  showed 
more  or  less  white  in  the  face.  This  came  from  a  crossing  with 
the  Black  Spanish.  After  a  reduction  in  the  size  of  the  ear 
lobes  had  been  accomplished,  less  white  was  found  in  the  face. 

Single-Comb  Black  Minorca  cocks  should  weigh  9  pounds; 
cockerels  and  hens,  7^  pounds;  pullets,  6|  pounds.  Single- 
Cotpb  White  and  Rose-Comb  Black  Minorcas  should  weigh 
1  pound  less  than  these  weights. 


642  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

92.  Mating. — In  mating  Single-Comb  Black  Minorcas 
for  the  production  of  exhibition  fowls,  hens  of  large  size  and 
perfect  type  should  be  selected.  For  producing  pullets,  hens 
with  combs  that  hang  over  nicely  to  one  side,  with  perfect 
loops  in  them,  should  be  selected.  For  producing  cockerels, 
females  having  combs  that  stand  erect  should  be  used.  By 
carefuUy  selecting  and  mating  for  such  restdts,  a  line  of  females 
with  straight  combs  that  are  strong  at  the  base  and  evenly 
serrated,  will  be  established.  Such  hens  should  be  mated  with 
males  that  have  perfect  combs  and  that  have  been  bred  in 
line  from  hens  of  the  same  type.  Cockerels  with  combs  of 
delicate  formation  are  best  for  mating  with  hens  for  producing 
pullets. 

Size,  Minorca  breed  characters,  and  perfect  plumage  color 
are  the  main  points  to  look  for  when  selecting  breeders.  It  is 
useless  to  attempt  to  produce  Minorcas  of  the  finest  exhibition 
quality  without  having  hens  of  large  size  that  conform  to  the 
foregoing  description  and  are  nearly  perfect  in  all  Minorca 
requirements.  In  addition  to  this,  strains  for  breeding  both 
males  and  females  must  be  established.  Dark  under  plumage 
and  perfect  surface  plumage,  with  plenty  of  sheen,  are  neces- 
sities. In  mating  for  color,  red  is  apt  to  appear  in  the  plimiage 
of  the  hackles  and  the  saddle.  To  relieve  this,  hens  without 
sheen  shoiild  be  introduced  into  the  matings.  Males  having 
very  large  combs  may  be  dubbed  (the  combs  cut  off  to  within 
half  an  inch  of  the  head),  when  used  for  breeding  purposes. 

To  get  good  results  from  breeding  Black  Minorcas,  the  novice 
must  depend  on  the  experience  of  older  breeders  and  have  them 
select  the  fowls  for  the  matings.  Records  should  be  kept  of 
the  offspring  from  each  hen,  and  from  the  results  obtained 
it  will  be  possible  to  tell  which  hens  are  best  for  producing 
cockerels  and  which  for  producing  ptdlets.  After  a  careful 
study  of  the  results  obtained,  the  breeder  can  be  guided  by 
these  results  in  selecting  the  males  and  females  for  future 
matings.  Few  fowls  require  more  careful  handling  than  the 
Minorcas,  and  only  those  willing  to  pay  the  most  attention 
to  their  selection,  mating,  feeding,  and  general  care  will  suc- 
ceed with  them.     They  will  not  stand  crowding,  and  the  males 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  543 

must  have  plenty  of  room  to  move  about  on  the  roost. 
Obstructions  that  are  apt  to  bend  or  break  the  wing  or  tail 
feathers  should  not  be  permitted  where  Minorcas  are  kept. 


KOSE-COMB    BLACK    MINORCA 

93.  Origin. — The  Rose-Comb  Black  Minorca  orig- 
inated from  offspring  that  came  from  the  single-comb  variety 
and  that  had  combs  of  irregular  shape,  more  like  a  rose  than 
like  a  single  comb.  These  fowls  were  separated  and  bred  to 
establish  a  rose-comb  variety.  Black  Hambm-gs  were  bred 
into  them,  and  although  such  crosses  showed  bad  results  at 
first,  the  outcome  has  been  a  Black  Minorca  of  good  quality 
with  a  rose  comb. 

94.  Development. — The  early  development  of  the  Rose- 
Comb  Black  Minorca  was  made  in  America.  For  some  time 
these  fowls  were  bred  only  in  the  state  of  New  York.  Later 
they  were  distributed  and  crossed  with  Black  Hamburgs. 

95.  History. — The  Rose-Comb  Black  Minorcas  originated 
with  George  H.  Northup,  of  Raceville,  New  York,  who  bred 
them  until  they  were  fairly  well  established,  when  they  were 
distributed  throughout  the  world.  About  1895  some  Rose- 
Comb  Black  Minorcas  were  sold  and  shipped  to  Germany. 
Since  that  time  the  Rose-Comb  Black  Minorcas  have  been 
popular, 

96.  Description. — The  Rose-Comb  Black  Minorcas  are 
identical  with  the  Single-Comb  Black  Minorcas,  with  the 
exception  of  the  comb.  This  should  be  of  fairly  good  size, 
formed  in  front  like  the  comb  of  a  Hamburg,  but  larger  and 
heavier  in  proportion;  the  spike  should  extend  well  back  and 
show  a  tendency  to  follow  the  shape  of  the  head  and  neck. 
The  plumage  color  in  all  sections  should  be  the  same  as  in  the 
Single-Comb  Black  Minorcas. 

97.  Mating. — The  same  kind  of  fowls,  with  the  exception 
of  the  comb,  shoiild  be  selected  for  mating  to  produce  both 
the  Rose-Comb  and  the  Single-Comb  Black  Minorca.     Rose- 


544  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

Comb  Black  Minorca  males  or  females  that  have  badly  formed 
combs,  that  is,  combs  that  are  crooked  or  rough  in  general 
formation,  should  not  be  selected  for  producing  the  finest 
exhibition  specimens.  Males  and  females  are  bred  from  the 
same  matings;  this  simplifies  the  selection  of  the  breeders 
and  the  work  of  breeding.  Only  fowls  having  the  proper  breed 
characters,  good  color,  and  the  best  combs  should  be  selected. 


WHITE  MINORCA 


SINGLE-COMB    WHITE    MINORCA 

98.  Origin. — In  early  poultry  writings  mention  is  made 
of  the  White  Spanish  and  the  Single-Comb  White  Minorca. 

One  of  the  earliest  breeders  of  Minorcas  stated  that  in  1835 
he  had  some  white  offspring  from  his  Black  Minorcas.  But 
earlier  than  this  the  statement  was  made  that  all  colors  of 
Minorcas  were  found  in  their  original  home.  Many  years  ago 
they  were  more  plentiful  than  in  1895.  Since  that  time  they 
have  been  reestablished  as  a  variety  by  selecting  and  carefully 
breeding  the  Minorcas  that  came  with  white  plumage. 

99.  Development. — The  Single-Comb  White  Minorcas 
have  been  developed  in  both  England  and  America  from  sports 
that  came  from  the  Single-Comb  Black  Minorcas. 

100.  History. — The  first  Single-Comb  White  Minorcas 
that  were  bred  in  America  originated  in  the  central  part  of 
New  York.  After  their  appearance  they  were  sparingly  bred 
throughout  the  United  States  and  Canada,  and  they  are  men- 
tioned as  having  appeared  in  England  at  about  the  same  time. 
The  type  of  White  Leghorns  and  that  of  White  Minorcas  bred 
in  England  are  so  nearly  alike  that  they  can  be  distinguished 
only  by  the  color  of  their  shanks,  which  are  yellow  in  Leg- 
horns and  pinkish  white  in  Minorcas.  This  variety  has  never 
become  popular  in  any  locality,  but  it  has  been  admitted  to 
both  the  American  and  English  Standards. 


'Xs.-'*.  '-^«:-*^-, 


t 


^ 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  547 


BLUE    MINORCA 

108.  Blue  Minorca  fowls  having  the  same  plumage  color 
as  the  Andalusian  have  been  produced.  It  is  thought  that  they 
have  been  made  by  selecting  the  largest  Andalusian  males  and 
crossing  them  with  females  with  slaty-blue  plimiage,  which  has 
come  from  Black  Minorcas.  They  must  have  the  breed  char- 
acters of  the  Minorca  family,  and  plumage  color  like  the 
Andalusian. 

To  produce  the  proper  color  in  the  blue  Minorca,  the  same 
general  rules  must  be  a:pplied  as  are  necessary  for  the  produc- 
tion of  the  Andalusian.  Little  or  no  progress  has  been  or  can 
be  made  in  these  fowls,  because  of  the  fact  that  they  are  looked 
on  as  large-sized  Andalusians.  As  they  have  no  variety  dis- 
tinctions except  color,-  there  will  be  no  certainty  of  their  popu- 
larity if  admitted  to  the  Standard  as  a  variety  of  the  Minorca 
family. 

SPANISH 


ORIGIN,   DEVELOPMENT,   AND  HISTORY 

109.  Of  all  the  varieties  of  fowls  that  have  been  accredited 
to  the  Mediterranean  districts,  only  the  Spanisli  fowls  were 
mentioned  in  the  earliest  publications.  Bonington  Moubray 
mentions  them  in  his  earliest  writings  (1816).  He  says:  "The 
Spaniard  is  very  large;  the  plumage  is  black,  the  flesh  white 
and  delicate,  and  the  new  variety  equals  in  size  the  old  Duke 
of  Leeds  breed."  In  1834,  in  a  revision  of  his  earliest  publica- 
tion, he  describes  the  Spanish  fowls  as  large  fowls  with  black 
plumage,  flesh  white  and  delicate,  but  inferior  in  size  to  the 
old  Duke  of  Leeds  breed.  He  states  that  they  are  well  adapted 
for  capons,  and  that  they  produce  eggs  nearly  equal  in  size  to 
those  of  the  Malay  hens.  He  says:  "This  breed  is  now  com- 
mon, particularly  in  London.  They  are  all  black,  with  black 
legs,  and  rich,  red  combs  and  gills,  and  far  too  high  on  the  leg." 
He  illustrates  them  in  colors,  showing  them  with  white  faces. 
Rev.  Edmund  Saul  Dixon,  M.  A.,  writes  of  them  in  his  book 


548  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

on  "Ornamental  and  Domestic  Poultry,"  published  in  1850: 
"The  Spanish  breed  is  in  all  probability  of  ancient  and  remote 
origin,  and  does  not  seem  to  have  reached  us  from  the  country 
after  which  it  was  named.  In  North  Devon  they  call  the 
Spanish  fowls  Minorcas;  others  call  them  Portugal  fowls,  and 
neither  term  removes  them  far  from  their  old  established  loca- 
tion, if  not  their  original  home.  *  *  *  The  thoroughbred 
birds  of  the  fancy  should  be  entirely  black,  and  when  in  high 
condition,  should  display  a  greenish,  metallic  luster.  The 
combs  of  both  cocks  and  hens  are  exceedingly  large  and  of  a 
vivid  and  most  brilliant  scarlet ;  that  of  the  hen  droops  over  on 
one  side.  Their  most  singular  feature  is  a  large  white  patch 
or  ear  lobe  on  the  cheek,  which,  in  some  specimens,  extends 
over  a  great  part  of  the  face.  It  is  of  a  fleshy  substance  similar 
to  the  wattles;  it  is  smaller  in  the  hens,  but  very  large  and 
conspicuous  in  the  cocks." 

He  fiirther  states:  "Such  birds  are  occasionally  produced 
handsomely  streaked  with  red  on  the  hackle  and  back.  This 
is  no  proof  of  bad  breeding.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  as  near  as 
may  be  the  sort  which  Columella's  relatives  might  have  kept 
in  Spain  at  the  time  when  he  was  improving  the  native  sheep 
by  the  importations  from  Morocco,  1,800  years  ago."  He 
also  says:  "The  Blacks  were  not  the  only  valuable  race  of 
Spanish  fowls."  And  he  mentions  the  existence  of  gray  or 
speckled  fowls,  the  latter  being  of  a  slaty  gray  with  white  legs. 
He  mentions  importations  that  were  made  into  England  in 
1846-47,  among  which  were  speckled,  black,  and  white  fowls, 
in  shape  and  carriage  very  much  like  the  Speckled  Polish 
(except  that  they  were  much  longer  in  the  leg),  that  had  top- 
knots, a  tuft  of  feathers  hanging  under  the  throat,  and  white 
legs.  The  others  were  pure  white,  in  shape  and  carriage  like 
the  Black  Spanish,  lacking  only  the  white  cheek  patch. 

Following  the  statements  of  Dixon  in  1850,  there  is  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  black,  speckled,  and  white  fowls  with 
white  faces  and  white  ear  lobes,  and  of  others  having  the 
same  colors  and  white  ear  lobes,  but  lacking  the  white  faces. 
The  white  fowls  had  the  shape,  carriage,  and  length  of  leg  of 
the  Spanish,  and  in  addition  to  this,  the  crest  and  beard  of  the 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  645 

101.  Description. — The  Single-Comb  White  Minorca 
must  conform  in  every  way  to  the  breed  characters  of  the  Black 
Minorca.  The  only  exception  is  that  in  the  White  Minorca 
the  beak,  shanks,  and  toes  are  pinkish  white,  the  eyes  are  red, 
and  the  plumage  is  pure  white. 

102.  Mating. — To  be  successful  in  the  breeding  of  Single- 
Comb  White  Minorca  fowls,  the  males  and  females  selected 
for  breeders  must  have  quality  equal  to  the  best  Single-Comb 
Black  Minorcas.  The  fowls  selected  must  have  pure  white 
plumage,  red  eyes,  ear  lobes  of  large  size  and  perfectly  white 
in  color,  and  shanks  and  feet  of  a  pinkish-white  color.  Size, 
shape,  color,  and  head  points  must  all  have  careful  attention. 
If  the  rules  for  mating  the  black  variety,  with  the  exception  of 
color,  are  applied  to  the  white  variety,  offspring  of  improved 
quality  will  be  produced.     

ROSE-COMB    WHITE3    MINORCA 

103.  Origin  and  Development. — The  Rose-Comb 
White  Minorca  is  said  to  have  been  originally  produced  by 
crossing  some  Rose-Comb  White  Leghorns  with  White  Minorca 
females  that  had  combs  like  the  Malay  or  the  Aseel.  Such 
combs  might  have  occurred  by  atavism,  because  of  the  fact  that 
White  Malays  were  used  in  crossing  with  the  White  Leghorns 
of  England  to  gain  greater  length  in  shank  in  the  White  Leg- 
horns. Splashed  white-and-black  offspring  are  said  to  have 
been  used,  and  finally  a  rose-comb  black  male  was  crossed 
with  the  best  rose-comb  white  females  that  could  be  selected. 
From  these  crosses,  the  best  offspring  were  selected,  mated, 
and  remated  until  Rose-Comb  White  Minorcas  of  good  quality 
were  produced. 

104.  History. — The  Rose-Comb  White  Minorca  is  a 
variety  that  has  not  been  recognized  by  the  American  or  the 
English  Standard.  It  is  a  comparatively  new  variety  that  has 
been  improved  since  1906. 

105.  Description. — The  Rose-Comb  White  Minorca 
must  conform  in  a  general  way  to  the  requirements  for  the 
other  varieties  of  Minorcas.     They  must  have  combs  the  same 


546  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

as  described  for  the  Rose-Comb  Black  Minorcas;  the  eyes, 
shanks,  and  plumage  color  should  be  the  same  as  in  the  Single- 
Comb  White  Minorcas.  A  bluish  tinge  is  sometimes  seen  in 
the  shanks  of  specimens  that  are  otherwise  of  good  quality. 
This  tinge  in  the  shanks  indicates  a  cross  with  the  Hamburgs, 
and  is  detrimental  to  breeding  qualities. 

106.  Mating. — The  best  fowls  of  the  Rose-Comb  White 
Minorca  variety  shoiild  be  mated.  Only  those  ha.>  .Bg  white 
skin,  pinkish-white  shanks,  and  pure  white  plumage  sboxjld  be 
used.  Head  points  and  proper  breed  characters  should  iL":  ive 
marked  attention.  The  comb  is  one  of  the  most  attrarr  -ve 
features  of  this  variety,  and  all  fowls  having  irregularly  formed 
combs  should  be  excluded  from  the  breeding  pens. 


NON-STANDARD  VARIETIES  OF  MINORCA 


BABRED    MINORCA 

107.  Barred  Minorca  fowls  have  been  produced  that 
have  plumage  color  like  the  Barred  Pl5miouth  Rocks.  These 
fowls  have  but  recently  come  into  notice.  A  request  was  made 
to  the  American  Poultry  Association  at  its  meeting  in  1910 
to  admit  the  Barred  Minorca  to  the  Standard,  but  the  appli- 
cation was  rejected.  The  fowls  of  this  variety  that  were  sent 
to  St.  Louis  for  examination  by  the  revision  committee  of  the 
American  Poultry  Association,  were  but  little,  if  any,  larger 
than  the  Dominique  Leghorns,  and  their  color  was  mottled 
or  splashed  rather  than  barred.  In  England  some  were  shown 
in  1908,  and  they  were  called  Cuckoo  Minorcas.  They  have 
made  but  little  progress  in  the  way  of  development. 

The  coloring  of  the  Barred  Minorca  would  be  a  natural 
result  of  the  promiscuous  intermingling  of  Black  and  of  White 
Minorcas.  To  breed  fowls  of  this  variety  of  satisfactory  qual- 
ity it  is  necessary  to  careftdly  select  the  breeders  for  shape  and 
color,  year  after  year,  until  size,  shape,  and  color  have  been 
well  established. 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  547 

BLUE    MINORCA 

108.  Blue  Minorca  fowls  having  the  same  plumage  color 
as  the  Andalusian  have  been  produced.  It  is  thought  that  they 
have  been  made  by  selecting  the  largest  Andalusian  males  and 
crossing  them  with  females  with  slaty-blue  plumage,  which  has 
come  from  Black  Minorcas.  They  must  have  the  breed  char- 
acters of  .the  Minorca  family,  and  plumage  color  like  the 
AndaluLr-^tv: 

Tc  oroduce  the  proper  color  in  the  blue  Minorca,  the  same 
gen  rules  must  be  applied  as  are  necessary  for  the  produc- 
tion vji.^  the  Andalusian.  Little  or  no  progress  has  been  or  can 
be  made  in  these  fowls,  because  of  the  fact  that  they  are  looked 
on  as  large-sized  Andalusians.  As  they  have  no  variety  dis- 
tinctions except  color,  there  will  be  no  certainty  of  their  popu- 
larity if  admitted  to  the  Standard  as  a  variety  of  the  Minorca 
family.  

SPANISH 


ORIGIN,   DEVELOPMENT,   AND  HISTORY 

109.  Of  all  the  varieties  of  fowls  that  have  been  accredited 
to  the  Mediterranean  districts,  only  the  Spanish  fowls  were 
mentioned  in  the  earliest  publications.  Bonington  Moubray 
mentions  them  in  his  earliest  writings  (1816).  He  says:  "The 
Spaniard  is  very  large;  the  pltmiage  is  black,  the  flesh  white 
and  delicate,  and  the  new  variety  equals  in  size  the  old  Duke 
of  Leeds  breed."  In  1834,  in  a  revision  of  his  earliest  pubhca- 
tion,  he  describes  the  Spanish  fowls  as  large  fowls  with  black 
plumage,  flesh  white  and  delicate,  but  inferior  in  size  to  the 
old  Duke  of  Leeds  breed.  He  states  that  they  are  well  adapted 
for  capons,  and  that  they  produce  eggs  nearly  equal  in  size  to 
those  of  the  Malay  hens.  He  says:  "This  breed  is  now  com- 
mon, particularly  in  London.  They  are  all  black,  with  black 
legs,  and  rich,  red  combs  and  gills,  and  far  too  high  on  the  leg." 
He  illustrates  them  in  colors,  showing  them  with  white  faces. 
Rev.  Edmund  Saul  Dixon,  M.  A.,  writes  of  them  in  his  book 


548  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  11 

on  "Ornamental  and  Domestic  Poultry,"  published  in  1850: 
"The  Spanish  breed  is  in  all  probabiHty  of  ancient  and  remote 
origin,  and  does  not  seem  to  have  reached  us  from  the  country 
after  which  it  was  named.  In  North  Devon  they  call  the 
Spanish  fowls  Minorcas;  others  call  them  Portugal  fowls,  and 
neither  term  removes  them  far  from  their  old  established  loca- 
tion, if  not  their  original  home.  *  *  *  The  thoroughbred 
birds  of  the  fancy  should  be  entirely  black,  and  when  in  high 
condition,  should  display  a  greenish,  metallic  luster.  The 
combs  of  both  cocks  and  hens  are  exceedingly  large  and  of  a 
vivid  and  most  brilliant  scarlet ;  that  of  the  hen  droops  over  on 
one  side.  Their  most  singular  feature  is  a  large  white  patch 
or  ear  lobe  on  the  cheek,  which,  in  some  specimens,  extends 
over  a  great  part  of  the  face.  It  is  of  a  fleshy  substance  similar 
to  the  wattles;  it  is  smaller  in  the  hens,  but  very  large  and 
conspicuous  in  the  cocks." 

He  further  states:  "Such  birds  are  occasionally  produced 
handsomely  streaked  with  red  on  the  hackle  and  back.  This 
is  no  proof  of  bad  breeding.  On  the  contrary,  it  is  as  near  as 
may  be  the  sort  which  Columella's  relatives  might  have  kept 
in  Spain  at  the  time  when  he  was  improving  the  native  sheep 
by  the  importations  from  Morocco,  1,800  years  ago."  He 
also  says:  "The  Blacks  were  not  the  only  valuable  race  of 
Spanish  fowls."  And  he  mentions  the  existence  of  gray  or 
speckled  fowls,  the  latter  being  of  a  slaty  gray  with  white  legs. 
He  mentions  importations  that  were  made  into  England  in 
1846-47,  among  which  were  speckled,  black,  and  white  fowls, 
in  shape  and  carriage  very  much  like  the  Speckled  PoHsh 
(except  that  they  were  much  longer  in  the  leg),  that  had  top- 
knots, a  tuft  of  feathers  hanging  under  the  throat,  and  white 
legs.  The  others  were  pure  white,  in  shape  and  carriage  like 
the  Black  Spanish,  lacking  only  the  white  cheek  patch. 

Following  the  statements  of  Dixon  in  1850,  there  is  evidence 
of  the  existence  of  black,  speckled,  and  white  fowls  with 
white  faces  and  white  ear  lobes,  and  of  others  having  the 
same  colors  and  white  ear  lobes,  but  lacking  the  white  faces. 
The  white  fowls  had  the  shape,  carriage,  and  length  of  leg  of 
the  Spanish,  and  in  addition  to  this,  the  crest  and  beard  of  the 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  549 

Polish,  with  no  white  cheek  patch,  indicating  that  there  were 
all  kinds  and  colors  of  fowls  in  the  Spanish  coimtries.  These 
are  now  included  in  the  list  of  Mediterranean  and  Polish  fowls. 

Martin  Doyle,  in  his  book,  "Domestic  Poultry,"  published 
in  London  about  1850,  writes  many  pages  about  the  Spanish 
fowls,  and  sums  up  their  origin  in  the  following  statement: 
"The  fowls  called  Spanish  are  not  aboriginals  of  Spain,  but 
were  imported  into  that  country  either  from  some  portion  of 
the  East  through  the  Mediterranean  or,  as  has  been  affirmed, 
from  the  West  Indies,  by  Spanish  merchants  and  subsequently 
propagated  and  naturalized  in  Spain,  and  from  these  into 
European  countries.  Those  birds  differed  from  the  present 
Spanish  in  having  a  smaller  and  less  white  face  and  darker  feet 
and  shanks.  We  find  that  previous  to  the  introduction  of 
birds  for  egg  production,  a  diminutive  species  known  by  the 
name  of  Manx  was  the  common  class  of  fowls  reared  in  Spain. 
These  two  breeds  were  crossed,  varieties  were  thence  raised, 
and  the  present  subvarieties  of  the  Spanish  fowls  are  partly 
the  result.  In  Holland,  before  the  naturalization  there  of  the 
Spanish  fowls,  a  domestic  bird — ^in  color  a  dun,  or  bluish  slate — 
though  not  much  inferior  to  the  other,  prevailed.  But  if  we 
carefully  observe  the  variations  in  this  latter  class,  it  becomes 
evident  that  such  differences  are  the  results  of  admixture  with 
the  primitive  breeds." 

In  early  days,  a  Black  Spanish  cock  weighed  from  7  to  8 
pounds,  and  a  hen  from  6  to  7  pounds.  The  cock  was  from 
21  to  22  inches  in  height  and  the  hens  about  19  inches  in  height. 
This  measurement  from  the  ground  to  the  top  of  the  back  is 
about  the  same  as  that  of  the  present  type  of  Langshans. 

Harrison  Weir  states  that  the  Spanish  fowl  might  be  the 
kind  alluded  to  by  Columella  as  having  large  white  ears  and 
more  given  to  laying  than  to  sitting.  Perhaps  the  fowls 
referred  to  may  have  been  the  ancestors  of  those  mentioned 
by  other  writers.  Spanish  writers  speak  of  the  Spanish  fowl 
as  a  rare  breed,  the  origin  of  which  is  difficult  to  trace.  Mar- 
tin Doyle's  reference  to  them,  in  which  he  states  that  they  were 
brought  from  the  West  Indies,  might  be  true,  as  the  Spaniards 
would  naturally  carry  the  fowls  of  their  country  into  all  their 


550  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §11 

possessions.  The  Spaniards  were  great  traders.  Their  wines 
were  freely  used  in  every  inhabited  land,  and  natiirally  their 
poultry  would  go  with  the  trading  ships. 

The  variations  in  the  early  descriptions  of  Spanish  fowls, 
different  writers  stating  that  they  had  white  faces,  white 
patches  on  the  cheeks,  white  ear  lobes,  and  red  ear  lobes,  seem 
to  be  natural,  considering  the  fact  that  at  that  time  there  was 
great  confusion  in  distinguishing  between  varieties  of  all  fowls. 
These  were  not,  by  any  means,  the  only  variations  mentioned. 
For  instance,  it  was  stated  by  one  writer  that  the  plumage 
and  shanks  were  black  in  the  Black  Spanish  and  white  in  the 
White  Spanish  fowls;  Minorcas  were  described  as  having  both 
white  and  red  ear  lobes,  and  also  as  White-Faced  and  Red- 
Faced  Minorcas  and  Spanish. 

After  reviewing  all  the  information  on  the  subject,  it  seems 
safe  to  conclude  that  all  fowls  having  white  faces  or  white  ear 
lobes  have  descended  from  the  early  fowls  mentioned  by 
Roman  writers  in  the  year  35  A.  D.  as  having  large  white 
ear  lobes.  

WHITE-FACED  BLACK  SPANISH 

110.  Origin.— The  White-Faced  Black  Spanish  vari- 
ety as  it  now  exists  had  its  beginning  with  some  one  of  the  many 
kinds  that  came  from  Spanish  countries,  and  has  been  made 
since  1850.  Its  beginning  was  in  fowls  selected  for  their  breed 
characters  and  pure  white  faces,  the  white  extending  over  the 
entire  face  and,  as  shown  in  color  illustrations  of  1850,  down 
half  the  length  of  the  wattles  on  the  males  and  below  the 
wattles  on  the  females. 

111.  Development. — The  development  of  the  White- 
Faced  Black  Spanish  has  been  gradual.  From  year  to  year 
improvements  have  been  made  in  the  size  and  distribution  of 
the  white  in  the  faces,  until  so  much  of  this  has  been  developed 
as  to  be  objectionable  to  a  great  many  fanciers. 

112.  History. — Two  varieties,  the  white-faced  black  and 
the  white-faced  white,  have  been  mentioned  since  the  begin- 
ning  of   poultry   Hterature.     The   white   variety   has   never 


§  11  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  551 

become  popular.  In  both  the  original  English  Standard  and 
the  Halsted  Standard,  only  the  black  variety  was  described, 
but  in  the  Halsted  Standard  the  White  Leghorn  was  described 
as  having  a  white  face,  thus  emphasizing  the  confusion  that 
existed  as  late  as  1863  in  the  individuality  and  separation  of 
the  breed.  At  one  time  the  White-Faced  Black  Spanish  was 
the  most  popular  exhibition  fowl  in  England,  but  of  late  these 
fowls  are  kept  as  novelties  and  not  for  utility.  They  were 
originally  bred  in  England  for  egg  production  and  for  market 
poultry  and  were  highly  considered  for  capons. 

113.  Description. — The  color  illustration  of  the  White- 
Faced  Black  Spanish  shows  the  breed  characters,  the  white 
face,  and  the  plumage  color  of  the  modem  White-Faced  Black 
Spanish.  The  description  of  these  fowls  foimd  in  the  earliest 
Standard  conforms  to  their  description  at  the  present  in  both 
the  American  and  the  English  Standard.  From  the  first  they 
have  been  mentioned  as  large  fowls  having  an  upright  and 
attractive  carriage.  They  have  always  been  remarkably  long 
in  leg,  an  indication  of  relationship  to  the  Malay. 

The  color  of  both  the  males  and  the  females  is  identical. 
The  combs  and  the  wattles  are  bright  red;  the  eyes,  dark;  the 
shanks  and  toes,  preferably  black  or  nearly  black,  but  fre- 
quently of  a  bluish-gray  cast.  The  plimiage  is  black  through- 
out and  brilliant  with  a  greenish  sheen.  The  wattles  of  the 
male  are  frequently  white  on  the  under  side.  The  face  is 
opaque  white  and  pendent,  on  the  male  hanging  down  almost 
on  a  line  with  the  back,  but  not  so  large  in  the  female.  In 
some  instances  males  have  white  faces  more  than  6  inches  long 
and  4  inches  wide  on  each  side,  and  the  females  are  propor- . 
tionate  in  size.  The  chief  difficulties  to  be  avoided  in  breed- 
ing White-Faced  Black  Spanish  are  red  in  the  face  and  any 
rough,  corrugated  growths  on  the  face,  which  are  apt  to  cover 
the  eyes.  The  face  should  be  smooth  and  the  eyes  imob- 
structed. 

114.  Mating. — In  mating  the  White-Faced  Black  Span- 
ish for  exhibition,  only  fowls  having  perfect  or  nearly  perfect 
breed  characters,  large  faces,  that  are  long,  pendent,  and  per- 


552  MEDITERRANEAN  FOWLS  §  1 1 

fectly  smooth,  should  be  selected.  Perfect  combs  and  black 
shanks  should  always  be  preferred.  During  the  winter  months 
the  Black  Spanish  fowls  should  be  protected  from  the  cold,  so 
that  their  faces  will  not  be  frozen.  If  this  part  should  be  frozen 
the  beauty  and  value  of  the  fowl  will  be  destroyed.  It  is  not 
unusual  for  the  combs  of  Black  Spanish  used  in  breeding  to 
be  dubbed  or  cut  off  to  within  half  an  inch  of  the  top  of  the 
head.  All  females  used  for  breeding  should  have  perfect 
combs  that  fall  over  to  one  side,  but  not  so  much  as  is  usual 
with  the  Minorca  females. 

WHITE-FACED  WHITE  SPANISH 

115.     As  stated,  the  White-Faced  White  Spanish  had  a 

common  origin  with  the  Black  Spanish.  They  have  never 
been  popular,  nor  have  they  been  developed  to  any  extent. 
They  are  not  recognized  as  a  standard  variety  either  in  Amer- 
ica or  in  England.  The  fact  that  their  white  faces  and  white 
plumage  form  no  contrast  has  prevented  their  cultivation. 
The  coming  of  the  White  Leghorns  and  the  White  Minorcas 
made  their  presence  unnecessary,  and  it  is  very  doubtful 
whether  a  pair  of  White-Faced  White  Spanish  fowls  could  be 
found  that  would  be  of  a  quality  worthy  of  consideration. 
It  would,  however,  be  possible  to  renew  them  by  careful  breed- 
ing and  selection  for  breed  characters  and  white  faces. 


BANTAM  FOWLS 


GENERAL  REMARKS 

1.  Origin. — Bonington  Moubray,  in  his  earliest  writings, 
states:  "Bantams  belong  to  a  well-known  small  breed,  origi- 
nally from  India,  valued  chiefly  for  their  grotesque  figures 
and  delicate  flesh.  *  *  *  There  has  lately  been  obtained  a 
variety  of  bantams  extremely  small  and  as  smooth  legged  as 
a  game  fowl.  From  size  and  delicacy  they  are  very  convenient, 
as  they  may  always  be  used  in  the  place  of  chickens  when  small 
ones  are  not  to  be  had.  They  are  also  particularly  useful  for 
sitting  on  the  eggs  of  partridges  and  pheasants,  being  good 
nurses  as  well  as  good  layers." 

Rev.  Edmund  Saul  Dixon,  of  England,  states  that  bantams 
came  from  a  locality  on  the  island  of  Java,  known  as  Bantam, 
and  he  refers  to  the  yellow,  or  Nankin,  bantams  as  the  most 
prominent  of  that  time.  The  term  Nankin  will  be  misleading 
unless  it  is  understood  as  referring  to  the  buff  or  nankeen 
color  of  the  fowl;  it  has  no  reference  to  the  city  in  China  known 
as  Nankin,  or  Nanking.  He  describes  them  as  yellow  fowls 
with  dull-blue  legs  and  feet  and  small  combs,  and  also  says 
that  there  are  subvarieties  in  which  there  is  more  brown  after 
the  fashion  of  some  game  hens.  The  Nankin  bantams  must 
have  been  of  the  same  origin  as  the  Pekin  bantams,  which  came 
from  China,  and  both  must  have  been  related  to  the  Silkies, 
for  all  had  the  bluish  tinge  in  shanks  and  feet  and  many  had 
five  toes. 

The  Creeper  is  another  type  of  bantam  mentioned  by  Dixon. 
He  quotes  from  a  number  of  writers  relative  to  it,  and  accredits 
Aldrovandi  with  having  said:     "But  the  hens  which  Longolius 

553 


554  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

calls  pigmy  exist  here  and  there;  they  creep  along  the  ground 
by  limping  rather  than  walking;  we  call  them  dwarfs."  It 
would  seem  from  this  that  many  centiuries  ago  a  fowl  existed 
that  closely  resembled  the  Japanese  Bantam  of  the  present 
and  was  called  the  Creeper.  The  earliest  report  of  it  is  accred- 
ited to  the  15th  century. 

2.  Distribution  and  Development. — The  first  bantam, 
or  pigmy,  fowls  are  said  to  have  come  into  English  possessions 
in  trading  vessels  known  as  the  King  of  Bantam's  ships.  These 
were  of  but  few  varieties.  Perhaps  the  Nankin,  or  yellow, 
bantam  and  the  black  and  white  bantams  were  the  first  to 
come. 

The  dwarf  Creeper,  now  known  as  the  Japanese,  and  the 
woolly  hen,  now  called  the  Silky,  came  with  the  earliest  impor- 
tations from  Oriental  coimtries.  Frizzle  bantams  from  Japan 
were  mentioned  early.  All  of  these  were  crude,  and  were  not 
separated  into  distinct  breeds  or  varieties.  The  Nankin,  or 
yellow,  and  the  black  and  the  white  bantams  were  mentioned 
by  name  because  these  plumage  colors  were  predominant  in 
them. 

Bantams  as  they  now  exist  originated  about  1796,  when  the 
foundation  for  the  first  made  breed  was  laid.  Following  this, 
poultry  fanciers  began  to  improve  bantams  and  to  separate 
them  into  varieties,  the  first  of  which  were  the  Golden  Laced 
and  the  Silver  Laced  Sebright  Bantams. 

Wm.  Flamank  Entwisle,  of  England,  originated  Asiatic, 
Malay,  Indian  Game,  and  Aseel  Bantams,  and  did  much  to 
improve  all  breeds  of  bantams,  and  a  tribute  of  respect  from 
the  bantam  fraternity  of  the  world  is  due  to  him.  As  his 
great  work  is  acknowledged  here,  his  name  will  not  be  men- 
tioned when  the  different  varieties  of  bantams  are  described. 

3.  Size. — The  general  rule  now  accepted  for  size  of  ban- 
tams is  that  when  fully  matured  they  shall  weigh  one-fifth  as 
much  as  the  standard  fowls  of  corresponding  name.  Although 
this  rule  for  size  or  weight  is  given,  the  smaller  they  can  be 
bred  and  retain  breed  characters  and  the  power  of  reproduc- 
tion, the  more  valuable  they  will  be.    The  danger  that  follows 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  555 

minimum  size  is  the  difficulty  experienced  by  pullets  in  their 
first  laying  period.  Many  of  the  smallest  die  in  the  effort  to 
expel  their  eggs. 

4.  Classification. — ^A  general  classification  that  may  be 
made  of  Bantam  fowls  is  Booted,  Brahma,  Cochin,  Game,  Jap- 
anese, Malay,  Old-English  Game,  Polish,  Rose-Comb,  Sebright,  and 
Silky  Bantams,  and  these  are  treated  in  this  Section  in  alpha- 
betical order.  It  is  usual,  in  official  Standards  and  other  pub- 
lications, to  give  the  Game  Bantam  first.  Other  bantams 
are  classified  under  the  heading  of  Miscellaneous  as  follows: 
Andalusian,  As  eel.  Frizzle^  German,  Langshan,  Leghorn, 
Minorca,  Nankin,  Rumpless,  Scotch  Gray,  Spanish,  Sultan,  and 
Yokohama. 

BOOTED  BANTAM 

5.  The  Booted,  or  Feather-Legged,  Bantam  was  one  of 

the  earliest  varieties.  It  was  known  as  far  back  as  the  time 
of  Albin,  who  stated  in  his  writings  that  feather-legged  ban- 
tams were  becoming  impopular.  The  originals  of  this  breed 
were  crude  in  formation  and  sparingly  feathered  on  the  shanks 
and  toes;  some  were  tall  and  leggy  in  appearance,  and  others 
were  very  short  and  of  a  formation  more  like  the  Japanese  than 
the  Booted  Bantam  of  the  present.  They  were  bred  with 
muffs,  with  vulture  hocks,  and  with  both  white  and  yellow 
shanks.  The  modem  Booted  Bantam  was  made  by  selecting 
the  best  offspring  and  mating  them  for  form  and  plumage 
color. 

6.  Development. — For  a  long  time  Booted  Bantams  were 
bred  without  reference  to  form  or  color.  Black,  white,  speckled 
black  and  white,  speckled  red,  white  whiskered,  and  Dutch 
bearded  Booted  Bantams  were  bred  more  or  less  to  selection 
for  feather,  without  effort  to  separate  them  into  varieties. 
Later,  all  kinds  were  discarded  except  the  white  booted,  with 
white  shanks  and  beaks,  and  the  black  booted,  with  black  shanks 
and  beaks.  Some  of  the  white  booted  were  bearded  and  some 
were  not.    When  a  standard  was  made  for  the  Booted  Ban- 


556  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

tarns,  both  white  and  yellow  shanks  were  permitted,  although 
white  was  preferred.  Since  1883,  a  ntimber  of  varieties  have 
been  bred,  but  only  the  White  Booted  Bantam  is  described 
in  the  American  Standard.  Both  Black  Booted  and  WTiite 
Booted  Bantams  are  described  in  the  English  Standard,  and 
beards,  or  whiskers,  as  called  in  the  English  Standard,  are 
permissible,  the  preference  being  for  no  beard. 

7.  Description. — Booted  Bantams  are  bred  in  two  dis- 
tinct t^^pes;  one  ha\'ing  low  carriage  and  short  shanks  som^e- 
what  like  the  Japanese  type  of  fowls,  but  larger;  the  other 
ha\Tng  the  upright  carriage  described  in  the  American  Stand- 
ard. The  peculiarities  of  the  Booted  Bantams  are  their  com- 
pact body  formation,  with  neck  longer  than  the  Cochin 
Bantam,  tail  rather  fuU,  carried  upright,  with  sickles  only  an 
inch  or  two  longer  than  the  main  tail  feathers.  The  thighs  are 
short  and  heavily  feathered  at  the  hock,  the  feathering  fre- 
quently extending  to  the  groimd;  the  shanks  are  of  mediimi 
length,  very  heavily  feathered  on  the  outside,  with  long,  stiff 
feathers;  the  outer  and  middle  toes  have  a  growth  of  stiff 
feathers,  which  are  imlike  those  on  a  Cochin  Bantam,  are 
fewer  in  number,  and  -are  long  and  very  strong  in  quill.  The 
feathering  of  the  Booted  Bantams  is  profuse,  but  not  loose 
as  in  the  Cochin  Bantams.  In  some  of  the  best  specimens 
the  shank  and  toe  feathering,  if  spread  on  the  palm  of  the  hand, 
will  almost  cover  it.  In  many  specimens,  however,  the  feather- 
ing is  scant. 

The  plimiage  of  the  White  Booted  Bantam  is  pure  white 
to  the  skin;  the  shanks,  feet,  and  skin  are  also  white.  In  the 
Black  Booted  Bantam  the  plimiage  is  a  rich  gUstening  black; 
the  shanks  and  feet  also  are  black.  In  both  varieties,  the  eyes, 
combs,  face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  are  red.  The  comb  is 
single,  of  good  form,  rather  small,  upright,  and  evenly  serrated. 

The  cocks  weigh  from  26  to  30  ounces;  the  cockerels  and 
hens,  from  22  to  24  ounces;  the  pullets,  from  20  to  22  ounces. 
Disqualifying  weights  are  28  oimces  for  cocks,  24  otmces  for 
cockerels  and  hens,  and  22  ounces  for  pullets.  The  modem 
type  of  Booted  Bantam  is  shown  in  the  color  illustration. 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  557 

8.  Mating. — The  best  Booted  Bantams  that  can  be 
selected  should  be  mated  continuously,  marked  attention 
being  given  to  the  length  of  the  booting;  fowls  with  long,  stiff 
leg  and  toe  feathering  should  always  be  selected.  The  soft 
feathering  suitable  to  the  Cochin  Bantam  is  not  permissible 
on  the  Booted  Bantam.  In  the  White  Booted  Bantam,  the 
plumage  shoiild  be  chalk  white;  the  quills,  white  to  the  skin; 
the  skin,  beak,  shanks,  and  toes,  white.  In  the  Black  Booted 
Bantam,  the  plumage  should  be  equal  to  that  of  the  Langshan 
in  brilliancy;  the  shanks  and  toes  should  be  black;  the  beak, 
dark  or  horn  color;  the  eyes,  deep  red;  the  breed  formation  as 
previously  described. 

BRAHMA  BANTAM 


ORIGIN  AND  CHARACTERS 

9.  The  Brahma  Bantam  was  made  in  England  by  inter- 
mingling Brahma,  gray  Aseel,  and  Cochin  Bantams,  and 
finally  some  dark-tailed  Japanese  Bantams.  Offspring  from 
these  crosses  were  selected  and  mated,  and  this  process  was 
continued  for  many  years  until  bantams  were  produced  of 
Cochin  form  and  of  Light  and  Dark  Brahma  plumage  colors. 
Some  of  these  were  brought  to  America  and  mated  with  both 
Light  and  Dark  Brahma  fowls,  and  after  a  series  of  years  of 
mating  and  remating,  the  American  type  of  Brahma  Bantam 
was  established. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  Brahma  Bantam,  the  Light 
Brahma  and  the  Dark  Brahma,  both  of  which  conform  to  the 
general  breed  characters  of  the  Brahma  fowls.  In  America, 
the  Brahma  Bantam  conforms  in  a  general  way  to  the  large 
Brahma,  and  the  same  is  true  in  England;  but,  in  England, 
both  the  large  Brahma  and  the  Brahma  Bantam  is,  in  type, 
more  like  the  Cochin  than  the  American  Brahma.  They  are 
more  profusely  feathered  on  hocks,  shanks,  and  feet  than  those 
of  America,  and  vulture  hocks  are  not  a  disqualification. 
Those  that  have  been  brought  from  England  to  America  are 
in  type  quite  like  the  American  Cochin  Bantam. 


558  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 


DARK  BRAHMA  BANTAM 

10.  Origin. — The  American  type  of  Dark  Braluna  Ban- 
tam originated  at  Weston,  New  Jerse3^  from  a  Dark  Brahma 
female  mated  with  a  Dark  Brahma  Bantam  cockerel  from 
England.  Two  cockerels  of  beautiful  plumage  color  and 
average  American  Brahma  type  were  produced  the  first  year 
from  the  hen.  The  two  cockerels  were  mated  with  about 
twenty  hens  and  pullets  of  the  English  type  of  Dark  Brahma 
Bantam.  The  hen  was  mated  the  second  season  with  an  Eng- 
lish male;  some  chicks  were  hatched  from  these  matings  early 
in  February,  and  more  in  March;  the  best  of  all  the  offspring 
from  both  matings  were  selected  in  the  fall,  remated  in  a  large 
enclosure,  and  chicks  were  hatched  from  them  in  September 
and  October;  twenty-seven  of  these  survived  the  winter,  and 
from  them  was  established  the  McGrew  strain  of  Dark  Brahma 
Bantam,  which  has  been  distributed  throughout  the  United 
States  and  England. 

11.  Development. — The  Dark  Brahma  Bantam  was 
developed  by  intermingling  the  English  strain  of  the  Dark 
Brahma  Bantam  with  the  American  Dark  Brahma,  and  from 
the  offspring  selections  were  made  for  the  purpose  of  improving 
type  and  color. 

12.  History. — The  Dark  Brahma  Bantams  were  first 
bred  in  England,  where  they  have  been  greatly  improved  in 
color  and  markings,  but  the  shape  preferred  there  is  too  much 
like  that  of  the  Cochin  to  be  popular  in  America.  Importa- 
tions were  made  from  England,  and  from  them  the  American 
type  of  Dark  Brahma  Bantam  was  developed  as  described. 
Since  that  time,  they  have  been  distributed  throughout  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  and  from  them  bantams  having 
proper  Brahma  form  and  beautiful  Dark  Brahma  color  and 
markings  have  been  bred. 

13.  Description. — The  Dark  Brahma  Bantams  should 
conform  in  shape,  color,  and  markings  to  the  description  of 
the  Dark  Brahmas.     They  should  have  the  carriage  of  the 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  559 

Brahmas,  and  not  the  low  carriage  of  the  Cochins;  they  should 
have  soft,  close-fitting  hock  plumage,  and  a  plentiful  supply 
of  shank  and  toe  feathering.  The  females  should  be  of  the 
same  beautiful  gray  color  described  for  the  Dark  Brahmas; 
the  penciling  of  the  feathers,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  1,  should  be  found  in  every  portion  of 
the  plumage,  including  that  of  the  shanks 
and  toes. 

14.  Mating. — The  rules  given  for  ma- 
ting Dark  Brahma  fowls  for  producing 
exhibition  males  and  females  should  be 
applied  to  the  mating  of  Dark  Brahma 
Bantams.  Breed  characters  must  have 
marked  consideration  in  selecting  the  Ban- 
tams of  this  variety  for  breeding  purposes. 
The  strong  tendency  toward  Cochin  for-  ^^^'  ^ 

mation  and  stiff  hock  plumage  must  be  bred  out  of  them  by 
selecting  fowls  perfect,  or  nearly  perfect,  in  these  respects.  No 
tendency  toward  other  than  Brahma  formation  should  be 
encouraged  in  the  mating. 


LIGHT  BRAHMA  BANTAM 

15.     Origin. — ^Perhaps  the  best  strain  of  Liglit  Brahma 

Bantam  in  America  was  made  by  intermingling  the  English 
type  of  Light  Brahma  Bantams  with  a  small  male  and  female 
selected  from  one  of  the  oldest  strains  of  the  Light  Brahma 
bred  in  Massachusetts.  The  result  of  the  first  year's  mating 
was  one  cockerel  of  fine  form  and  color,  and  two  pullets  of 
small  size  and  beautiful  markings.  The  pullets  were  mated 
to  a  male  from  England,  and  the  cockerel  was  mated  to  two 
English  hens  and  five  English  pullets.  More  than  one  hundred 
chicks  were  raised  in  one  year  from  the  later  mating,  and  a 
few  were  raised  from  the  two  half-bred  pullets.  The  best 
offspring  from  both  matings  were  selected  and  mated  in  the 
fall  of  the  same  year;  and  in  October,  more  than  forty  chicks 
were  hatched  from  them,  fourteen  of  which  survived  the  win- 


560  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

ter.     From  these,  a   strain   of   Light   Brahma   Bantams  was 
established. 

16.  Development. — The  Light  Brahma  Bantam  has  been 
developed  by  the  bantam  fanciers  of  England  and  America 
for  the  improvement  of  type  and  pltmiage  color  as  preferred 
in  the  two  countries. 

17.  History. — The  Light  Brahma  Bantam  was  originated 
in  England  and  in  America  as  described.  For  a  number  of 
years  but  few  of  them  were  seen  in  America.  Following  1895, 
they  were  sparingly  distributed  throughout  the  eastern  part 
of  the  United  States  and  in  Canada.  After  the  formation  of 
the  National  Bantam  Association  of  America,  renewed  inter- 
est was  displayed  in  them.  A  standard  was  made  to  meet  the 
requirements  of  the  American  type  of  Light  Brahma  Bantam, 
and  for  several  years  a  number  of  them  were  bred,  but  since 
1905  less  interest  has  been  shown  in  this  variety. 

18.  Description.— The  Light  Brahma  Bantam  should 
conform  in  every  way,  size  excepted,  to  the  type  of  Light 
Brahma,  as  described  in  the  American  Standard.  The  chief 
defects  found  in  bantams  of  this  variety  are  Cochin  breed  char- 
acters, vulture  hocks,  and  improper  back  and  tail  carriage. 
The  early  influence  of  Japanese  bantams  shows  frequently  in 
straight  sickle  feathers  that  are  pointed  at  the  end.  Drooping 
wings  and  extended,  stiff  hock  feathering  are  not  proper  char- 
acters of  Brahma  Bantams.  They  should  have  Brahma  back 
and  tail  formation;  the  feathers  should  be  profuse,  soft,  and 
round  about  the  hocks,  with  no  stiff  plumage.  The  shanks 
and  toes  may  be  profusely  feathered,  but  for  beauty  and  Brahma 
finish,  the  shank  and  toe  feathering  should  conform  in  color 
and  markings  to  that  of  the  larger  Brahma.  Their  carriage 
should  be  upright  and  stately  like  the  Brahma,  not  stooped  like 
the  Cochin. 

The  weight  of  cocks  must  not  exceed  33  ounces;  of  cockerels 
and  hens,  29  ounces;  and  of  pullets,  27  ounces.  One  ounce 
heavier  than  these  weights  disqualifies  them  for  exhibition; 
3  ounces  less  than  these  weights  is  proper  for  them. 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  557 

8.  Mating. — The  best  Booted  Bantams  that  can  be 
selected  shoxild  be  mated  continuously,  marked  attention 
being  given  to  the  length  of  the  booting;  fowls  with  long,  stiff 
leg  and  toe  feathering  should  always  be  selected.  The  soft 
feathering  suitable  to  the  Cochin  Bantam  is  not  permissible 
on  the  Booted  Bantam.  In  the  White  Booted  Bantam,  the 
plumage  should  be  chalk  white;  the  quills,  white  to  the  skin; 
the  skin,  beak,  shanks,  and  toes,  white.  In  the  Black  Booted 
Bantam,  the  plumage  should  be  equal  to  that  of  the  Langshan 
in  brilliancy;  the  shanks  and  toes  should  be  black;  the  beak, 
dark  or  horn  color;  the  eyes,  deep  red;  the  breed  formation  as 
previously  described. 

BRAHMA  BANTAM 


ORIGIN  AND  CHARACTERS 

9.  The  Brahma  Bantam  was  made  in  England  by  inter- 
mingling Brahma,  gray  Aseel,  and  Cochin  Bantams,  and 
finally  some  dark-tailed  Japanese  Bantams.  Offspring  from 
these  crosses  were  selected  and  mated,  and  this  process  was 
continued  for  many  years  until  bantams  were  produced  of 
Cochin  form  and  of  Light  and  Dark  Brahma  plumage  colors. 
Some  of  these  were  brought  to  America  and  mated  with  both 
Light  and  Dark  Brahma  fowls,  and  after  a  series  of  years  of 
mating'  and  remating,  the  American  type  of  Brahma  Bantam 
was  established. 

There  are  two  varieties  of  Brahma  Bantam,  the  Li^ht 
Brahma  and  the  Dark  Brahma,  both  of  which  conform  to  the 
general  breed  characters  of  the  Brahma  fowls.  In  America, 
the  Brahma  Bantam  conforms  in  a  general  way  to  the  large 
Brahma,  and  the  same  is  true  in  England;  but,  in  England, 
both  the  large  Brahma  and  the  Brahma  Bantam  is,  in  type, 
more  like  the  Cochin  than  the  American  Brahma.  They  are 
more  profusely  feathered  on  hocks,  shanks,  and  feet  than  those 
of  America,  and  vulture  hocks  are  not  a  disqualification. 
Those  that  have  been  brought  from  England  to  America  are 
in  type  quite  like  the  American  Cochin  Bantam. 


558  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 


DARK  BRAHMA  BANTAM 

10.  Origin. — The  American  type  of  Dark  Braliina  Ban- 
tam originated  at  Weston,  New  Jersey,  from  a  Dark  Brahma 
female  mated  with  a  Dark  Brahma  Bantam  cockerel  from 
England.  Two  cockerels  of  beautiful  plumage  color  and 
average  American  Brahma  type  were  produced  the  first  year 
from  the  hen.  The  two  cockerels  were  mated  with  about 
twenty  hens  and  pullets  of  the  English  type  of  Dark  Brahma 
Bantam.  The  hen  was  mated  the  second  season  with  an  Eng- 
lish male;  some  chicks  were  hatched  from  these  matings  early 
in  February,  and  more  in  March;  the  best  of  all  the  offspring 
from  both  matings  were  selected  in  the  fall,  remated  in  a  large 
enclosure,  and  chicks  were  hatched  from  them  in  September 
and  October;  twenty-seven  of  these  survived  the  winter,  and 
from  them  was  established  the  McGrew  strain  of  Dark  Brahma 
Bantam,  which  has  been  distributed  throughout  the  United 
States  and  England. 

11.  Development. — The  Dark  Brahma  Bantam  was 
developed  by  intermingling  the  EngHsh  strain  of  the  Dark 
Brahma  Bantam  with  the  American  Dark  Brahma,  and  from 
the  offspring  selections  were  made  for  the  purpose  of  improving 
type  and  color. 

12.  History. — The  Dark  Brahma  Bantams  were  first 
bred  in  England,  where  they  have  been  greatly  improved  in 
color  and  markings,  but  the  shape  preferred  there  is  too  much 
like  that  of  the  Cochin  to  be  popular  in  America.  Importa- 
tions were  made  from  England,  and  from  them  the  American 
type  of  Dark  Brahma  Bantam  was  developed  as  described. 
Since  that  time,  they  have  been  distributed  throughout  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  and  from  them  bantams  having 
proper  Brahma  form  and  beautiful  Dark  Brahma  color  and 
markings  have  been  bred. 

13.  Description. — The  Dark  Brahma  Bantams  should 
conform  in  shape,  color,  and  markings  to  the  description  of 
the  Dark  Brahmas.     They  should  have  the  carriage  of  the 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  661 

19.  Mating. — For  producing  exhibition  offspring,  Light 
Brahma  Bantams  having  form  and  color  as  described  for  the 
large  Brahmas  must  be  selected.  If  improper  form  and  car- 
riage prevail  in  the  breeding  stock,  the  same  will  be  increased 
in  the  offspring.  It  is  very  difficiilt  to  breed  Light  Brahma 
Bantams  of  the  accepted  shape  and  color.  But  few  of  the 
best  quality  will  come  from  well-selected  matings,  and  only 
poor  results  can  be  expected  from  bantams  of  this  variety  that 
do  not  possess  the  proper  breed  characters,  shape,  and  pliunage 
color.  The  color  and  markings  will  be  controlled  in  this  vari- 
ety the  same  as  described  for  the  large  Brahmas. 


COCHIN  BANTAM 


ORIGIN 


20.  The  Cochin  Bantam  has  become  one  of  the  most  pop- 
ular of  all  varieties  of  bantams,  and  it  has  been  distributed  into 
every  section  of  the  globe.  Nankin  bantams  that  had  yellow 
plumage,  blue  shanks,  and  were  sparingly  feathered  on  shanks 
and  toes  are  mentioned  among  the  earliest  of  the  small  breeds 
of  fowls.  A  Chinese  legend  said  to  have  been  written  more 
than  1,000  years  ago  mentions  a  bridal  present  of  a  pair  of 
diminutive  fowls  of  a  golden  color,  somewhat  larger  than  doves, 
placed  in  an  oval  cage  that  was  decorated  with  flowers  of  a 
golden  hue.  This  may  be  accepted  as  evidence  of  the  existence 
at  that  time  of  small  yeUow-plumaged  fowls.  The  first  Cochin 
Bantams  came  from  China,  and  were  of  a  dark  cinnamon  color. 
They  were  called  Pekin  Bantams  and  they  frequently  had 
greenish  shanks  and  five  toes.  The  same  is  true  of  the  Nankin 
and  Silky  Bantams;  the  latter  had  blue  shanks  and  five  toes, 
and  the  former  had  greenish  shanks  and  frequently  five  toes,- 
which  indicates  that  all  may  have  had  the  same  origin. 

The  first  Pekin  Bantams  came  from  China  into  England 
about  1860,  but  they  were  not  brought  to  America  until  10  or 
12'  years  later.     For  many  years  only  the  buff  variety  was 


662  BANTAAI  FOWLS  §  12 

knowTi;  but  later,  other  varieties  were  brought  from  China, 
and  some  varieties  were  made  both  in  England  and  in  America. 
There  formerly  existed  a  marked  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
shape,  color,  and  feathering  of  the  Cochin  Bantams,  the  ban- 
tam breeders  of  England  selecting  one  type  and  those  of  Amer- 
ica another.  When  it  was  proved  that  as  perfect  shape  and 
color  could  be  bred  in  the  Cochin  Bantam  as  in  the  larger 
Cochin,  Standard  descriptions  were  changed,  or  rather  their 
application  was  altered,  and  only  Cochin  Bantams  ha\'ing  true 
Cochin  form  and  plumage  color  were  recognized. 

The  first  Cochin  Bantams  that  came  from  China  were  of  the 
buflE  variety.  For  many  years  it  was  thought  that  this  was 
the  only  kind  known  in  China,  but  later  black  Cochin  Bantams 
were  brought  to  England.  Mr.  Entwisle  states,  relative  to 
the  buff  variety :  "Many  years  elapsed  before  Cochin  Bantams 
of  other  color  than  buff  were  heard  of,  and  by  that  time  the 
buffs  had  almost  died  out  and  were  in  the  hands  of  only  one 
breeder.  The  new  ones  were  black,  badly  marked  with  white 
or  straw  color  in  hackle  and  red  in  wdngs."  It  has  been  claimed 
that  no  new  blood  in  Cochin  Bantams  was  brought  from  China, 
and  that  all  that  were  bred  for  20  years  came  from  the  original 
pair  of  buffs.  A  cross  wdth  Nankin  Bantams  was  made  to 
invigorate  them,  and  it  is  claimed  that  from  this  cross  greenish 
color  was  bred  into  the  shanks,  and  that  five  toes  resulted  in 
the  same  way;  others  claim  that  later  importations  from  China 
had  the  same  defects. 

BLACK  COCHIN  BANTAM 

21.  Origin. — The  Black  Cocliin  Bantam  was  bred  from 
fairly  good-colored  bantams  that  were  brought  from  China. 

22.  Development.— The  first  Black  Cochin  Bantams  that 
were  brought  into  England  from  China  had  white  on  the  s,ur- 
face  and  in  the  under  plumage  of  the  hackle;  gray  or  white 
under  plumage  in  the  back;  and  in  some  the  shanks  and  feet 
were  yellow  and  in  others  dusky  yellow.  They  have  been 
developed  by  years  of  careful  breeding  into  a  variety  having 
beautiful  Cochin  form  and  almost  perfect  plumage  color. 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  56S 

23.  History. — The  Black  Cochin  Bantam  did  not  become 
popular  until  it  had  been  improved  in  form  and  color.  This 
was  begun  by  the  breeders  of  England,  who  bred  the  fowls 
to  Cochin  form  with  good  surface  color,  but  defective  in 
color  of  under  plumage.  The  American  fanciers  were  the  first 
to  produce  them  with  plimiage  that  was  black  to  the  skin. 
With  this  came  black  or  very  dark  shanks,  and  toes  that  are 
objectionable,  as  the  American  Standard  requires  the  shanks 
and  toes  to  be  black,  gradually  shading  into  yellow,  with  the 
bottom  of  the  feet  yellow.  Years  of  labor  were  given  to 
further  perfecting  form  and  plumage  color  and  a  proper  color 
of  shanks  and  feet. 

24.  Description. — The  Black  Cochin  Bantam  should  be 
of  perfect  Cochin  form  and  profuse  in  feather';  the  plumage 
should  be  a  rich  glossy  black  throughout,  with  no  foreign 
color;  the  shanks  and  toes,  black,  shading  into  yellow;  the 
bottom  of  the  feet,  yellow;  the  beak,  the  same  color  as  the 
shanks ;  the  eyes,  dark  brown. 

25.  Mating. — The  best  Black  Cochin  Bantams  that  can 
be  selected  must  be  used  for  breeding.  The  form  must  be 
perfect  and  the  plumage,  including  the  quill  and  under  plumage, 
must  be  black.  The  surface  plumage  should  glisten  with  a 
brilliant  finish  that  rivals  the  sheen  of  the  Langshan.  To  pre- 
vent red  appearing  in  the  surface  pltimage,  females  with  no 
sheen  in  the  surface  plumage  should  be  used.  The  defects  to 
be  avoided  are  described  in  discussing  the  Buff  Cochin  Bantam. 
A  great  deal  of  attention  should  be  given  to  the  proper  color 
of  the  shanks  and  toes;  they  should  be  shaded  with  yellow, 
and  the  soles  of  the  feet  should  be  yellow. 


BUFF  COCHIN  BANTAM 

26.  Origin  and  Development.— The  Buff  CocMn 
Bantam  was  developed  from  buff-colored  bantams  that  were 
taken  from  China  to  England.  They  were  small,  lacking  in 
breed  characters,  narrow  in  tail  formation,  and  deficient  in 
pliunage  color.     It  has  been  claimed  that  but  a  single  pair  was 


564  .  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

taken  from  Pekin  to  London ;  but  a  counter  claim  is  made  that 
more  than  these  were  taken  to  England  and  that  some  were 
taken  to  America  also.  The  peciiliarity  of  form  and  color  of 
the  early  fowls  led  to  a  belief  that  there  were  many  varieties 
of  them  in  their  original  home.  This  theory  has  been  substan- 
tiated by  persons  who  saw  nimierous  varieties  in  China  prior 
to  1870.  An  early  writer  stated  that,  when  in  China,  he  saw 
as  many  colors  of  Cochins  and  Cochin  Bantams  as  would  be 
seen  in  mongrel  flocks  in  America.  Bufi,  however,  seemed  to 
be  the  predominating  color. 

27.  The  origin  of  Buff  Cochin  Bantams  has  been  given 
previously,  and  it  is  necessary  here  only  to  tell  of  the  origin  of 
the  present  type.  It  was  begun  in  England  and  finished  in 
America.  One  of  the  most  prominent  bantam  breeders  of 
England  said,  after  having  received  a  shipment  of  Buff  Cochin 
Bantams  from  America,  that  they  were  the  first  bantams  of  a 
uniform,  even  shade  of  buff  throughout,  with  buff  tinder  plu- 
mage, that  had  ever  been  seen  in  England.  Bantam  breeders 
of  England  made  them  of  fairly  good  Cochin  type,  and  the 
bantam  breeders  of  America  greatly  improved  Cochin  type 
and  made  the  color  of  the  siu-face  and  imder  plumage  perfect. 

28.  History. — Cochin  Bantams  became  so  popiilar  in  the 
United  States  as  to  place  them  in  advance  of  other  breeds  of 
bantams.  More  Buff  Cochin  Bantams  were  bred  and  shown 
in  the  10  years  following  1895  than  any  other  variety  of  ban- 
tam. The  first  Buff  Cochin  Bantam  males  having  an  even 
shade  of  buff  to  match  the  color  of  the  female  were  produced 
by  crossing  a  Buff  Cochin  Bantam  male  with  White  Cochin 
Bantam  females,  and  from  the  offspring  of  this  cross  a  strain 
was  established  that  produced  males  and  females  of  one  shade 
of  color,  which  has  now  been  made  golden  buff,  the  same  as  in 
all  buff -colored  fowls. 

29.  Descxiption. — Buff  Cochin  Bantams  should  have  the 
body  formation  and  profuse  feathering  that  are  most  desirable 
in  Cochin  fowls.  This  should  be  pronounced  in  all  varieties, 
but  especially  so  in  the  buff  variety.     The  perfect  rotundity  of 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  565 

form  that  is  so  much  admired  in  the  large  Buff  Cochin  fowls 
should  be  carried  out  in  every  section  of  the  Buff  Cochin  Ban- 
tams. The  plumage  of  this  variety  should  be  golden  buff 
throughout,  as  even  as  possible;  the  top  color  of  males  and  the 
hackle  of  females  should  be  glossed  with  a  rich  finish  that  gives 
these  sections  a  darker  appearance  than  the  breast  and  body 
plumage;  the  under  plumage  should  be  buff,  a  shade  or  two 
lighter  than  the  surface  color.  No  white,  black,  or  foreign 
color  of  any  kind  should  appear  in  the  surface  or  the  under 
plumage.  Profuse  under  fluff  such  as  is  shown  in  the  feather 
in  Fig.  2  is  necessary  to  build  out  the 
plumage  formation.  There  should  be 
double  the  quantity  of  feather  in  the 
under  fluff  as  in  the  web,  and  the  color  of 
the  web  should  be  so  dense  as  to  hide  the 
lighter  shade  of  color  in  the  under  plumage,  -^C^yi^'-^ ^'' fM^ 
thus  avoiding  a  mealy  appearance  in  the  "X,^  ^  -5r  '  "-^J^ 
surface  color.     The  .shanks  and  the  outer  '  ^ 

and  middle  toes  should  be  covered  with 
feathers ;  the  quills  of  these  feathers  shordd 
be  stronger  in  the  males  than  in  the  females, 
but  strong  enough  in  both  to  make  the  ^^<^-  ^ 

kind  of  toe  feathering  shown  in  the  color  illustrations.  Scant 
shank  and  toe  feathering  is  a  glaring  defect,  and  a  bare  middle 
toe  is  a  disqualification. 

The -standard  weights  for  all  varieties  of  Cochin  Bantams 
are  the  same :  30  ounces  for  cocks ;  26  ounces  for  cockerels  and 
hens,  and  24  ounces  for  pullets.  Four  oimces  heavier  than  these 
weights  will  disqualify. 

30.  Mating. — In  selecting  Buff  Cochin  Bantams,  and  in 
fact  all  varieties  of  Cochin  Bantams,  for  mating,  special  atten- 
tion must  be  given  to  the  beauty  of  head  formation  and  comb, 
as  well  as  to  perfectly  shaped  Cochin  back.  No  division  or 
split  in  the  body  and  fluff  formation  is  permissible.  Where  the 
lower  part  of  the  tail  and  body  formation  joins  with  the  fluff 
feathering  about  the  vent  and  thighs,  and  where  the  wing  folds 
in  between  them,  there  is  liable  to  be  an  open  space  or  break 


566  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

in  the  plumage.  This  is  one  of  the  most  objectionable  fea- 
tures in  Cochin  Bantams,  and  shotild  be  guarded  against.  The 
body,  as  viewed  from  the  rear,  should  be  as  perfect  in  form  and 
feather  as  when  viewed  from  the  front  or  the  side.  Each  sec- 
tion of  a  Cochin  Bantam  must  blend  into  the  others;  and  to 
preserve  such  formation,  it  must  be  perfect  in  the  breeding 
stock.  To  produce  Buff  Cochin  Bantams  requires  the  same 
process  of  mating  that  is  described  for  Buff  Cochin  fowls. 


PARTRIDGE  COCHIN  BANTAM 

31.  Cochin  Bantams  of  many  colors  came  from  China. 
The  first  partridge-colored  or  brown-red  fowls  that  came  from 
there  were  unfinished  in  color  and  markings.  The  plumage  of 
the  males  was  like  that  of  the  original  brown-red  game  fowls; 
the  females  were  like  poorly  colored  Brown  Leghorn  females. 
It  has  been  claimed,  but  not  proved,  that  such  colors  existed 
in  Cochin  Bantams  in  China.  Males  have  been  bred  from 
early  black  Cochin  Bantams,  which  had  more  or  less  red  in 
the  top  color,  and  females  mixed  with  brown  and  black  came 
from  the  same  matings.  Whether  or  not  there  was  originally 
partridge-colored  plimiage  among  them  matters  not,  for  the 
Partridge  Cocliiii  Bantam,  as  it  now  exists,  was  made  in 
England  and  America. 

32.  Origin. — The  Partridge  Cochin  Bantam  was  made  in 
England  by  crossing  black  and  buif  Cochin  Bantams,  from 
which  offspring  of  fairly  good  brown-red  color  resulted.  These 
were  selected  and  crossed  with  Partridge  Cochin  fowls,  pro- 
ducing offspring  of  bantam  size.  In  America,  they  were  made 
by  crossing  English-bred  Partridge  Cochin  Bantams  with  the 
Mitchell  strain  of  Partridge  Cochins,  the  offspring  being  of 
bantam  size. 

33.  Development. — The  Partridge  Cochin  Bantam  has 
been  developed  in  America  to  meet  the  color  requirements  of 
the  American  Standard.  In  England,  it  has  been  developed 
to  meet  the  color  demands  of  the  Standard  there,  which  describes 
a  lighter  shade  of  red  in  the  males  and  in  the  body  color  of 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  567 

females,  with  less  striping  on  the  males  and  a  lighter  shade  of 
penciling  in  the  females.  The  males  that  came  from  England 
had  color  and  markings  like  the  black-red  game  bantams,  with 
striping  in  the  hackle  and  saddle.  The  females  had  a  gray- 
mahogany  shade  of  body  color,  penciled  with  brown. 

34.  History. — ^Partridge  Cochin  Bantams  were  bred  in 
England  for  a  ntmiber  of  years  before  they  were  brought  to 
America.  Three  of  them  were  imported  from  England  in  1897 
and  taken  to  Elmwood  Farm,  Weston,  New  Jersey,  where 
they  were  cross-bred  with  Partridge  Cochin  fowls  from  the 
Mitchell  strain.  This  strain  has  since  been  distributed  among 
the  most  successful  bantam  breeders  of  America. 

35.  Description. — The  Partridge  Cochin  Bantam  must 
conform  in  shape,  profuse  feathering,  color,  and  markings  to 
the  large  Partridge  Cochin.  The  Partridge  Cochin  Bantam 
has  a  more  profuse  feathering  than  any  of  the  other  Cochin 
Bantams.  This  has  resulted  from  the  crosses  made  with  the 
Cochin  fowls.  Males  of  beautifiil  color  and  markings  have 
been  produced,  as  well  as  some  females  that  equal  their  large 
ancestor  in  plumage  color,  but  many  of  the  latter  show  a  gray- 
ish-brown tinge. 

36.  Mating. — The  Partridge  Cochin  Bantams  are  usually 
mated  for  the  production  of  males  and  females  from  a  single 
pair.  For  this  kind  of  mating,  the  best  that  can  be  selected 
for  shape  and  color  are  mated  to  produce  bantams  of  good 
form  in  both  sexes,  with  fairly  good  color  and  markings.  To 
be  most  successful  with  them,  the  same  line  of  matings 
described  for  Partridge  Cochin  fowls  must  be  followed. 


WHITE  COCHIN  BANTAM 

37.  Origin. — Originally,  some  of  the  Buff  Cochin  Ban- 
tam  females  were  so  light  in  color  as  to  be  called  cream 
colored.  From  them  the  start  for  the  White  Cochin  Ban- 
tam was  made.  In  America,  some  of  the  cream-colored  buff 
variety  were  selected  by  A.  P.  Grove,  of  Philadelphia,  who  was 


568  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

very  successful  with  them.  His  efforts  resiilted  in  some  that 
were  white.  Later,  some  very  good  white  bantams  were 
imported  from  England,  and  these,  bred  with  the  American 
product,  produced  White  Cochin  Bantams,  which  were  bred 
with  some  beautiful  White  Cochin  pullets  weighing  about 
4  pounds.  The  same  method  of  cross-mating  was  followed  in 
England,  and  thus  in  both  coimtries  the  White  Cochin  Bantam 
has  been  made. 

38.  Development. — After  years  of  careful  handling,  the 
White  Cochin  Bantam  was  developed  from  the  crude  originals 
mentioned  in  connection  with  their  origin.  It  has  been  devel- 
oped into  a  Cochin  Bantam  that  rivals  other  varieties  in  Cochin 
form  and  perfect  plumage. 

39.  History. — The  history  of  the  White  Cochin  Bantam 
parallels  that  of  the  other  varieties.  Bantams  of  this  variety 
were  originated,  developed,  improved,  and  bred  into  Cochin 
type  before  their  plumage  color  was  perfected.  Finally,  they 
were  crossed  with  Booted  White  Bantams  to  obtain  pure  white 
plumage.  White  shanks  and  toes  resulted  from  this  cross. 
White  shanks  were  made  a  disqualification  for  them,  and  fol- 
lowing this  action,  a  return  was  quickly  made  to  yellow  shanks 
and  beak,  and  they  are  now  bred  with  beautiful  form  and 
proper  color  to  conform  to  the  standard  for  White  Cochin 
fowls. 

40.  Description. — White  Cochin  Bantams  must  con- 
form in  shape  and  color  to  large  White  Cochin  fowls.  They 
must  have  perfect  Cochin  type,  profuse  feathering,  plenty 
of  fluff  and  cushion,  yeUow  shanks  and  feet,  beautiful  heads, 
comb,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes,  and  bright-red  and  brilliant  eyes. 
Beautifully  formed  head,  comb,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  are 
necessities. 

41.  Mating. — In  selecting  White  Cochin  Bantams  for 
breeding  exhibition  offspring,  only  those  having  perfect  or 
nearly  perfect  Cochin  form,  with  a  profusion  of  feathers,  chalk- 
white  plumage,  including  the  quill  down  to  the  skin,  bright-red 
eyes,  yellow  beak,  shanks,  and  toes,  should  be  used.     From  no 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  569 

other  kind  will  anything  like  perfection  be  bred.  White 
Cochin  Bantams  must  be  more  nearly  perfect  in  form  and 
color  than  bantams  of  other  varieties  or  they  will  not  attract 
equal  attention. 

CUCKOO  COCHIN  BANTAM 

42.  Origin. — The  Cuckoo  Cochin  Bantam  made  its 
appearance  in  many  localities  where  both  Black  Cochin  and 
White  Cochin  Bantams  were  bred.  By  intermingling  these 
two  varieties,  the  black-and-white  Mottled  and  the  Cuckoo 
varieties  have  been  obtained. 

43.  Development. — The  Cuckoo  Cochin  Bantam  has 
been  developed  from  offspring  that  were  indifferently  marked 
or  colored  like  the  Dominique  fowls. 

44.  History. — One  strain  of  Cuckoo  Cochin  Bantam  was 
developed  in  America  from  some  fairly  well-marked  offspring 
that  came  from  cross-breeding  a  Cochin  Bantam  male  that  was 
half  biiff  and  half  black  with  both  Black  Cochin  and  White 
Cochin  Bantam  females.  Some  of  the  offspring  so  produced 
resembled  in  color  the  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks.  The  best 
male  and  the  best  female  from  them  were  cross-bred  with  a 
pair  of  Cuckoo  Cochin  Bantams  imported  from  England;  the 
offspring  were  selected  and  remated,  and,  as  the  result  of  sev- 
eral years  of  breeding,  Cuckoo  Cochin  Bantams  were  produced. 
They  have  never  been  recognized  as  a  standard  variety  in 
America,  but  are  so  considered  in  England. 

45.  Description. — The  Cuckoo  Cochin  Bantam  should 
have  Cochin  Bantam  shape  and  pliimage  color  and  markings 
like  standard-bred  Barred  Plymouth  Rocks.  In  all  other 
respects  it  should  resemble  the  Cochin  Bantam. 

46.  Mating. — The  best  Cuckoo  Cochin  Bantams  that  can 
be  selected  must  be  mated  for  the  production  of  offspring  with 
Cochin  Bantam  form  and  Barred  Plymouth  Rock  color.  In 
general  form,  the  Cuckoo  Cochin  Bantams  are  usually  well 
proportioned  and  have  good  Cochin  Bantam  type.     This  they 


570  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

have  inherited  from  the  other  varieties,  but  the  great  difficulty 
with  them  is  the  production  of  good  plumage  color,  which  can 
be  obtained  only  by  following  the  rules  for  mating  Barred 
Plymouth  Rock  fowls. 

DEFECTS  IN  COCHIN  BANTAMS 

47.  The  principal  defects  that  are  likely  to  be  found  in 
Cochin  Bantams  are: 

1.  Long  backs  in  the  females.  This  is  caused  by  a  lack  of 
profuse  down,  or  under  fluff,  in  the  feathers.  In  Fig.  2  is 
shown  a  feather  that  is  two-thirds  down,  or  under  fluff.  Cochin 
Bantams  that  have  feathers  of  this  kind  will  have  a  large,  round 
cushion,  and  this  will  give  them  the  short  back  that  is  so  desir- 
able in  fowls  of  this  variety.  The  proper  markings  for  the 
feathers  of  a  Partridge  Cochin  Bantam  are  shown  in  the  feather 
in  Fig.  1. 

2.  Narrowness  between  the  thighs.  This  gives  the  fowl  a 
pinched  appearance  when  viewed  from  the  rear,  and  also  causes 
the  fowl  to  have  a  flat,  narrow  breast  instead  of  a  full,  rounded 
one.     This  defect  destroys  the  beauty  of  a  Cochin  Bantam. 

3.  The  combination  of  too  great  length  of  shanks,  erect 
carriage,  and  a  long  head.  This  gives  a  Cochin  Bantam  a 
crow-like  appearance,  which  is  a  glaring  defect. 

4.  A  too  great  length  of  tail  in  either  males  or  females. 
This  should  be  corrected  by  selecting  breeding  fowls  that  are  so 
profusely  feathered  with  down  and  soft  plumage  as  to  soften 
the  quills  of  the  main  tail  feathers  and  form  the  round,  curving 
tail  formation  in  the  males  and  the  short  growth  of  main  tail 
feathers  in  the  females,  surrounded  by  fluff  and  cushion. 

5.  Badly  colored  plumage.  This  should  be  avoided  in  all 
varieties  of  Cochin  Bantams. 


12  BANTAM  FOWLS  571 


GAME  BANTAM 


ORIGIN  AND  CARE 

48.  Of  all  the  varieties  of  Bantams,  none  is  more  popular 
or  more  generally  bred  than  the  Game  Bantam.  Game  Ban- 
tams are  selected  by  the  most  expert  fanciers,  who  breed  them 
to  a  type  that  is  more  artificial  than  that  of  any  fowl  or  bird, 
unless  it  is  the  English  carrier  pigeon  or  the  crested  canary. 
Although  they  miniature  the  modem  type  of  exhibition  game 
fowls,  they  are  more  attractive  from  the  fact  that  they  are 
so  small,  so  delicately  built,  and  so  well  trained  for  exhibition 
as  to  have  the  appearance,  when  in  the  show  pen,  of  models 
posing  rather  than  of  fowls  for  exhibition.  Game  Bantaras 
have,  of  necessity,  been  so  closely  inbred  and  line  bred  as  to 
have  made  them  more  delicate,  or  rather  more  susceptible  to 
weather  conditions  and  changes,  than  other  bantams.  They 
must  be  comfortably  housed  during  cold  weather,  and  must 
at  all  times  be  protected  from  dampness.  They  cannot  with- 
stand the  bad  influence  of  damp  houses  or  drafty  and  cold 
houses.  Notwithstanding  this,  they  are  bred  successfully  in 
the  oppressive  climate  of  the  tropics  and  in  the  coldest  climates 
of  the  north. 

49.  Origin. — The  original  Game  Bantams  were  produced 
by  selecting  and  inbreeding  the  smallest  game  fowls,  remating 
the  offspring,  hatching  the  chicks  late  in  the  fall,  rearing  them 
during  the  winter  months,  and  then  selecting  the  smallest  so 
produced  arid  mating  them.  Another  method  was  mating  the 
small  game  fowls  so  produced  with  the  white  bantams  of  early 
days,  which  were  imdoubtedly  the  originals  from  which  the 
Rose-Comb  Bantams  were  made.  Messrs.  Tegetmeier  and 
Doyle  state  that  the  Game  Bantams  were  made  by  inbreeding 
small  game  fowls  and  cross-mating  them  with  white  bantams. 


572 


BANTAM  FOWLS 


§12 


A  color  illustration  made  by  Harrison  Weir  about  1860  shows 
white  and  game  bantams  side  by  side.  The  females  of  both 
varieties  are  quite  alike  in  shape,  but  they  differ  in  plumage 
color,  and  the  males  of  both  varieties  have  the  same  general 
tail  formation.  The  game  bantams  illustrated  by  Mr.  Weir 
were  referred  to  by  Mr.  Tegetmeier  when  he  stated  that  a 
small  game  cock  was  crossed  with  a  Bantam  hen.  From  this 
cross,  offspring  of  small  size  were  obtained,  but  the  game  ban- 
tam type  was  lost  and  was  regained  only  by  careful  breeding. 
Mr.  Entwisle  credits  John  Crosland,  of  Wakefield,  England, 
with  the  earliest  production  of  Game  Bantams. 

The  modem  type  of  Game  Bantam  of  all  varieties  has  been 
produced  in  much  the  same  manner  as  the  modern  type  of 
exhibition  game  fowls.  Their  history  has  been  told  in  that  of 
the  game  fowls,  and  need  not  be  repeated  here. 

50.  Game  Bantams  have  been  bred  in  every  variety  color 
known  to  game  fowls.  Since  descriptive  standards  for  them 
have  been  issued  by  clubs  and  associations,  they  have  been 
modeled  in  accordance  with  such  Standard  descriptions,  and 
only  varieties  mentioned  in  these  Standards  have  been  bred 
to  any  extent  during  recent  years.     White  and  Black  Game 


Fig.  3 

Bantams  are  mentioned  in  the  American  Standard  but  not  in 
the  English  Standard.  These  two  varieties  are,  however, 
recognized  in  the  English  Standard  for  Old-English  Game 
Bantams. 

According  to  the  English  Standard,  Game  Bantam  males  are 
admitted  to  competition  at  22  ounces,  females  at  20  ounces; 


12 


BANTAM  FOWLS 


573 


males  of  the  Old-English  Game  type  at  from  18  to  22  ovinces, 
females  at  from  16  to  20  ounces.  Game  Bantams  are  admitted 
to  competition  by  the  _f 

American  Standard  at 
22  ounces  for  cocks,  20 
ounces  for  cockerels  and 
hens,  and  18  ounces  for 
pullets;  4  ounces  in  ex- 
cess of  these  weights 
will  disqualify  them. 

5 1 .  Care . — To  pro- 
tect Game  Bantams 
from  cold,  they  should 
be  kept  in  well-built 
houses  that  have  a  per- 
fectly dry  interior,  and 
if  the  weather  is  likely 
to  be  very  cold  they 
should  be  provided  with 
hooded  roosts.  The 
hooded  roost  shown  in 
Fig.  3  is  suitable  for  this 
purpose.  This  hooded 
roost  is  made  from  a 
light  packing  case ;  it  is 
18  inches  high,  2  feet 
wide,  and  may  be  3  or 
4  feet  long.  When  the 
temperature  of  the  out- 
side air  goes  below  10°  F. 
above  zero,  the  cotton 
or  biurlap  curtain  at- 
tached to  the  front  of 
the  hooded  roost  should 
be  dropped  over  the 
opening  in  the  front  of  the  box;  this  will  provide  ample 
protection  diuing  the  coldest  weather.     There  should  be  sufh- 


574  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

cient  spaces  between  the  meshes  of  the  cloth  in  the  curtain  to 
admit  of  the  passage  of  fresh  air  into  the  box,  because  if  Game 
Bantams  are  shut  up  too  tightly  they  may  smother,  even  in 
the  coldest  weather. 

Game  Bantams  should  not  be  exposed  to  outside  weather 
conditions  during  cold,  or  even  cool,  weather,  or  when  it  rains 
or  snows.  Houses  for  them  should  be  built  with  a  connected 
shelter  or  roofed  nmway  covered  on  the  sides  with  galvanized- 
wire  netting,  such  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  4.  The  meshes  of  the 
wire  netting  should  be  small  enough  so  that  it  will  be  impossible 
for  a  mouse  to  go  through  it.  Such  a  netting  will  protect  both 
the  old  and  the  young  bantams  from  enemies  of  all  kinds. 
During  cold  or  stormy  weather,  an  additional  shelter  of  cotton 
cloth  may  be  fastened  down  on  the  inside  of  the  wire  netting. 
This  will  protect  the  bantams  from  wind,  snow,  or  rain,  and 
yet  will  admit  enough  light  for  them  to  see  to  scratch  about 
in  the  litter  inside  on  the  floor. 


BIRCHEN  GAME  BANTAM 

52.  Origin. — The  Birchen  Game  Bantam  was  made 
by  crossing  Brown-Red  and  Silver  Duckwing  Game  Bantams 
and  by  selecting  for  breeding  purposes  the  offspring  showing 
the  nearest  approach  to  the  color  and  markings  desired,  and 
continuing  to  remate  them  from  year  to  year  until  they  attained 
a  quality  fully  equal -to  that  of  the  large  fowls  of  the  same 
variety. 

53.  Development. — The  Birchen  Game  Bantams  have 
been  gradually  developed  into  a  variety  that  will  breed  almost 
true  to  plumage  color. 

54.  History. — The  Birchen  Game  Bantams,  like  the 
larger  fowls  of  the  same  color,  have  never  been  so  plentifully 
bred  nor  have  they  become  so  popular  as  bantams  of  other 
varieties.  These  Bantams  are  not  easily  bred  and  controlled 
within  the  color  and  markings  required  for  them.  Although 
they  are  frequently  exhibited  at  the  larger  poultry  shows,  they 
are  seldom  seen  at  the  smaller  ones. 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  575 

55.  Description. — It  must  be  remembered  that  all  vari- 
eties of  Game  Bantam  must  have  the  same  breed  characters. 
The  proper  type  and  variety  colors  for  them  are  shown  in  the 
color  illustrations.  The  ground  color  of  the  Birchen  Game 
Bantam  is  black;  the  top  color  and  markings  of  the  male  are 
silvery  white;  the  breast  feathers,  on  both  the  males  and  females, 
are  laced  with  white;  this  lacing  shordd  not  extend  below  the 
thighs ;  the  hackle  of  both  males  and  females  is  the  same  color, 
lightly  striped  with  black;  the  eyes  of  both  sexes  are  black;  the 
head  and  its  attachments  are  dark  ptirple  or  gypsy  color;  the 
beak,  shanks,  and  toes  are  very  dark  or  black;  the  sickle  feathers 
of  the  male  are  very  fine  and  glisten  with  sheen. 

56.  Mating.— The  methods  of  mating  Birchen  Game 
fowls,  told  in  connection  with  the  discussion  of  that  variety, 
shoiild  be  applied  to  the  Birchen  Game  Bantams.  In  mating 
bantams  of  this  variety,  special  attention  must  be  given  to 
selecting  for  perfect  Game  Bantam  type,  and  to  have  the  top 
color  in  males  a  clear,  silvery  white.  Both  males  and  females 
must  have  hackles  of  the  same  color,  as  free  from  striping  as 
possible,  and,  when  striped,  they  should  be  lightly  marked  with 
a  fine  black  line  running  down  the  center  almost  to  the  point  of 
the  feather.  If  only  the  lower  feathers  of  the  hackles  of  the 
breeders  are  so  marked,  the  offspring  will  be  more  attractive. 
The  body  color  of  the  parent  stock  should  be  black,  the  lacing 
on  the  breast  feathers,  a  fine  or  narrow  line,  the  white  gradu- 
ally running  out  until  it  disappears  at  the  juncture  of  the  legs 
and  the  breast.  The  lacing  is  likely  to  increase  in  successive 
generations,  and  when  too  much  of  this  occurs,  males  having 
little  or  no  white  below  the  shoiilders  can  be  used  in  the  matings. 
It  must  be  understood  that  the  two  colors  of  the  Birchen  Game 
Bantam  are  black  and  white.  Lemon  and  black  belong  to  the 
Brown-Red  Game  Bantam,  and  the  distinction  between  these 
two  varieties  should  be  nearly  as  perfect  as  can  be  drawn 
between  white  and  lemon  or  straw  color. 


576  BANTAM  FOWLS  S 12 


BLACK  GAME  BANTAM 

57.  Origin. — The  first  Black  Game  Bantam  fowls  of 
proper  form  and  color  that  were  produced  in  the  United  States 
were  made  from  black  or  very  dark  offspring  from  both  Birchen 
and  Brown-Red  Game  Bantams.  They  have  been  made  else- 
where in  much  the  same  manner. 

58.  Development. — The  development  of  the  Black  Game 
Bantams  has  come  through  a  careftd  selection  of  the  best 
offspring  from  the  originals,  mated  afterwards  for  form  and 
color. 

59.  History. — Black  Game  Bantams  were  first  shown  in 
America,  and  there  accepted  as  a  Standard  variety.  They 
have  been  much  improved  since,  and  some  have  been  shown 
that  were  the  equal  of  other  varieties. 

60.  Description. — The  Black  Game  Bantams  must  have 
the  same  type  and  breed  characters  as  other  Game  Bantams. 
The  plumage  is  glossy  black  throughout;  the  beak,  shanks, 
and  toes  are  black;  the  eyes  are  nearly  as  dark  as  those  of  the 
Birchen  Game  Bantam;  the  face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  are 
dark  red. 

61.  Mating. — To  succeed  with  the  breeding  of  the  Black 
Game  Bantam,  unusual  care  and  attention  must  be  given  to 
selecting  breeders  of  proper  size  and  Game  Bantam  type; 
rich,  glossy  plimiage  having  considerable  sheen;  beaks,  shanks, 
and  toes  very  smooth,  and  gUstening  black,  if  possible.  The 
difficulty  in  breeding  these  fowls  is  to  avoid  a  tendency  toward 
black-red  in  the  plimiage.  To  prevent  this,  females  with 
grayish-black  plumage  should  be  used  occasionally  in  the 
matings.  Males  with  rich  glossy  black  pltmiage,  dark  under 
plumage,  dark  eyes,  and  smooth,  glossy  black  beak,  shanks, 
and  toes,  may  be  mated  to  females  less  brilliant  in  plimiage, 
one  or  more  of  them  having  the  grayish-black  tinge.  Males 
without  sheen  may  be  mated  to  females  that  have  rich  glossy 
black  plimiage,  shanks,  and  toes. 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  577 


BLACK-BREASTED  RED  GAME  BANTAM 

62.  Origin. — The  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  Bantam 

was  made  by  breeding  down  from  the  larger  type  of  modem 
exhibition  game  fowls.  This  was  accomplished  by  crossing 
game  bantams  of  the  earher  type  with  very  small  males 
selected  from  the  modem  type  of  exhibition  game  fowls  and 
by  then  mating  the  smallest  females  of  both  the  early  and  the 
modem  type  of  Game  Bantam  with  small  black-red  Malay 
Bantam  males. 

63.  Development. — The  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  Ban- 
tam was  made  by  a  process  of  development  carried  on  by 
expert  bantam  breeders.  They  were  produced  by  selecting 
the  best  of  the  variety  and  mating  and  rematkig  for  type  and 
color  without  the  introduction  of  blood  from  any  other  variety. 
Black-Red  game  color  cannot  be  improved  through  the  intro- 
duction of  any  other  variety  color.  Black-Breasted  Red  Game 
Bantams  are  the  foimdation  stock  from  which  all  varieties 
of  Game  Bantams  have  been  made,  and  they  can  be  improved 
only  by  selection. 

64.  History. — The  history  of  the  Black-Breasted  Red 
Game  Bantam  covers  a  century.  It  had  its  beginning  in  small 
fowls  much  like  Rose-Comb  Bantams  in  shape,  the  females 
colored  and  marked  like  the  Brown  Leghorn  and  the  males 
colored  like  the  Black-Breasted  Red  Game.  From  time  to 
time  improvement  has  been  made  in  them  in  much  the  same 
degree  as  in  the  large  game  fowls.  The  improvement  of  the 
latter  is  illustrated  in  Game  Fowls.  The  interesting  part  of  the 
history  of  the  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  Bantam  begins  about 
1890,  when  they  had  been  developed  into  miniature  fowls 
having  all  the  breed  characters  of  their  large  ancestors,  and, 
if  possible,  more  beautiful  color  and  markings.  Since  that  time 
no  other  bantam  has  been  so  popiilar  as  the  Black-Breasted 
Red  Game. 

65.  Description. — The  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  Ban- 
tam is  accepted  as  the  model  for  type  in  all  varieties.     In  the 


578  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

color  illustration,  which  was  drawn  from  life,  are  shown  Black- 
Breasted  Red  Game  Bantams  and  Duckwing  Game  Bantams 
that  have  won  at  the  Game  Bantam  Club  shows  of  America; 
they  illustrate,  therefore.  Game  Bantam  type  and  color  as 
defined  by  experts.  The  other  varieties  have  been  modeled 
to  conform  to  them. 

66.  Mating. — In  selecting  breeders  for  the  production  of 
Black-Breasted  Red  Game  Bantams  for  exhibition,  special 
attention  should  be  given  to  type,  which  must  conform  to  that 
of  the  large  exhibition  game  fowls.  This  type  is  the  same  in 
all  Game  Bantams,  and  is  shown  in  the  color  illustrations. 
The  special  features  of  importance  to  be  considered  when 
selecting  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  Bantam  breeding  fowls 
are  the  position  of  the  legs,  which  should  be  well  forwards, 
and  the  length  of  leg  from  the  body  to  the  hock  joint,  which 
should  exceed  that  of  the  shank  from  the  hock  joint  to  the 
ground.  Frequently  the  reverse  is  true,  but  the  greater  beauty 
comes  with  more  length  above  the  hock  joint  than  below. 
The  wings  should  be  carried  as  shown  in  the  color  illustration. 
The  shoulders  should  be  broad  and  prominent ;  the  back  should 
slope  away  and  become  narrow  at  its  juncture  with  the  tail; 
the  tail  shoiild  be  gathered  close  together  and  be  no  larger 
than  a  lead  pencil  at  the  end;  the  sickles,  very  fine  and  delicate; 
the  abdomen  well  cut  up  so  as  to  have  the  Game  Bantam  type 
or  under-body  formation,  as  shown  in  the  color  illustration. 
The  tail  of  the  female  should  be  set  high  and  have  the  appear- 
ance of  being  a  part  or  a  continuation  of  the  back.  Although 
these  features  might  be  included  in  the  description  of  this 
variety,  they  have  been  omitted  there  and  mentioned  under 
the  heading  of  mating  because  they  are  not  part  of  any  Stand- 
ard description.  It  is  better  to  state  them  here  than  to  con- 
fuse Standard  descriptions  with  the  breeder's  art  in  the  selec- 
tion of  fowls  for  matings. 

The  special  features  and  general  directions  mentioned  in 
connection  with  the  mating  of  Black-Breasted  Red  Game 
fowls  shoiild  be  applied  to  the  matings  for  the  production  of 
exhibition  offspring  of  this  variety. 


.^DWlWf '.-C-Ar-ii! 


DucKwiNG,  Pyle,  and  White  Game  Bantams 


241-1  L  T  117    §  12 


12  BANTAM  FOWLS  579 


BROWN-RED  GAME  BANTAM 

67.  Origin. — The  origin  of  the  Brown-Red  Game  Ban- 
tam is  identical  with  that  of  the  larger  type  of  fowls  of  the 
same  variety.  The  reduction  in  size  was  accomplished  in  the 
same  way  as  with  other  varieties  of  Game  Bantam. 

68.  History. — The  Brown-Red  Game  Bantam  became 
popular  when  it  was  first  shown  with  type,  station,  carriage, 
and  color  equal  to  the  Brown-Red  Game  fowl.  For  a  few 
years  its  popularity  continued,  but  of  late  it  has  waned.  It  is 
a  fancier's  fowl  and  difficult  to  breed. 

69.  Description. — The  Brown-Red  Game  Bantam  has 
the  same  type  as  other  Game  Bantams.  In  color,  it  should  be 
lemon  and  black;  the  top  color  should  be  lemon  where  red 
exists  in  the  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  Bantam,  and  black 
where  black  exists  in  that  variety.  The  breast  and  body  color 
should  be  black;  the  throat  and  breast  plumage,  laced  with 
lemon;  the  hackle,  lemon  of  a  darker  shade  in  the  male  than 
in  the  female,  frequently  cream  color  in  the  female,  the  center 
of  the  hackle  feathers,  in  both  males  and  females,  lightly 
striped  with  black.  The  color  description  of  this  variety  of 
bantams  to  accord  with  the  demands  of  both  the  English  and 
the  American  Standard  will  be  found  in  the  discussion  of  the 
Brown-Red  Game  fowls,  and  is  further  portrayed  in  the  color 
illustration. 

70.  Mating. — The  rules  for  mating  Brown-Red  Game 
fowls  should  be  followed  in  the  mating  of  Brown-Red  Game 
Bantams.  Those  selected  for  the  matings  must  have  delicate 
color  and  markings. 

DUCKWING  GAME  BANTAM 

71.  The  Duck  wing  Game  Bantam  conforms  so  closely 
to  the  large  Duckwing  Game  fowls,  in  respect  to  origin,  develop- 
ment, history,  and  description,  that  there  is  no  need  to  repeat 
the  information  here.  It  should,  however,  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  Duckwing  Game  Bantam  must  have  Duckwing  Game 


580  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

characters,  bantam  size,  and,  if  possible,  color  and  markings 
more  delicate  than  in  the  larger  fowls. 

72.  Mating. — Full  directions  for  mating  both  Golden  and 
Silver  Duckwing  Game  fowls  are  given  in  connection  with 
those  varieties,  and  these  directions  may  be  followed  in  the 
mating  of  Duckwing  Game  Bantams.  The  colors  of  the  two 
varieties  of  Duckwing  Game  Bantams  are  produced  in  the 
same  way  as  these  variety  colors  are  produced  in  the  large 
Duckwing  Game  fowls,  but  great  care  shoiild  be  taken  to  select 
those  with  more  delicate  shades  than  seems  possible  to  secure 
in  the  larger  fowls.  When  a  Silver  Wheaten  Game  Bantam 
female  can  be  secured  and  mated  with  a  delicately  marked 
Black-Breasted  Red  Game  Bantam  cockerel,  beautiful  Duck- 
wing Game  Bantams  can  be  bred  from  them.  The  Wheaten 
is  used  to  strengthen  the  color  in  both  the  golden  and  the  sil- 
ver varieties.  Most  persons  who  breed  Duckwing  Game  Ban- 
tams will  be  satisfied  with  matings  of  pure-bred  Silver  Duck- 
wing Game  Bantams  and  pure-bred  Golden  Duckwing  Game 
Bantams  for  producing  the  two  varieties,  but  for  the  produc- 
tion of  the  most  delicate  tints  in  these  varieties,  the  matings 
mentioned  for  the  large  Duckwing  Game  fowls  and  the  use  of 
Wheaten  females  can  be  resorted  to. 


RED  PYLE  GAME  BANTAM 

73.  In  origin,  development,  and  history  the  Red  Pyle 
Game  Bantam  conforms  to  the  large  Red  Pyle  Game  fowl. 
The  only  difference  is  in  the  size  and  the  finer  development 
which  natiu-ally  belongs  to  the  Game  Bantam.  Formerly,  they 
had  dark-colored  beaks,  shanks,  and  feet.  This  has  been  bred 
out  of  them,  and  since  then  they  have  become  very  popular 
in  the  United  States  as  well  as  in  England.  Some  of  the  best 
that  have  been  bred  were  produced  in  America. 

74.  Description. — The  Red  Pyle  Game  Bantam  is  fully 
the  equal  of  the  Black-Breasted  Red  Game  Bantam.  Its  form 
and  color  is  quite  attractive.     The  beautiful  white  body  color 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  581 

of  the  male,  with  color  markings  of  red,  is  a  beautiful  combina- 
tion of  colors  for  a  Game  Bantam.  The  breast,  body  and  tail 
plimiage  of  the  male  is  white.  The  red  markings  of  the  Pyle 
Game  Bantam  male  are  identical  with  the  red  markings  of  the 
Black-Breasted  Red  Game  Bantam  male.  The  Pyle  female 
has  pure  white  body  color,  with  breast  markings  of  salmon; 
the  neck  hackle  is  white,  the  feathers  edged  with  gold;  the 
face,  wattles,  ear  lobes,  and  eyes,  of  both  male  and  female, 
are  bright  red;  the  beak,  shanks,  and  toes  are  yellow. 

75.  Mating. — The  detailed  description  for  the  mating  of 
Red  Pyle  Game  fowls  applies  with  equal  force  to  the  mating 
of  Red  Pyle  Game  Bantams.  The  most  beautiful  of  the  Red 
Pyle  Game  Bantams  should  be  selected  for  the  matings.  The 
richest  colors  permissible  in  the  exhibition  pen,  in  both  males 
and  females,  should  be  selected  for  breeding  cockerels.  Less 
brilliantly  colored  males  will  answer  best  for  the  production 
of  females.  The  most  delicately  colored  Black-Breasted  Red 
Game  Bantam  males  may  be  bred  with  Pyle  females  for  the 
improvement  of  color.  Males  having  yellow  shanks  and  toes 
should  be  selected  if  possible.  The  yellow  color  of  these  sec- 
tions indicates  a  previous  cross  with  the  Pyle  variety. 


WHITE  GAME  BANTAM 

76.  Origin. — The  White  Game  Bantam  was  made  from 
white  offspring  of  Pyle  and  other  Game  Bantams. 

77.  Development. — The  development  of  the  White  Game 
Bantam  has  been  toward  the  improvement  of  color  of  plu- 
mage, beak,  shanks,  and  toes  and  the  maintenance  of  proper 
type. 

78.  History.— About  1900,  the  first  White  Game  Ban- 
tams worthy  of  the  name  were  shown.  These  had  perfect 
type,  but  their  plumage  was  spotted  with  black  and  the  shanks 
were  dark  or  willow  colored.  They  were  improved  after- 
wards, and  within  a  few  years  thereafter  some  having  better 
quality  were  shown. 


582  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

79.  Description. — To  have  quality  that  will  attract 
attention,  White  Game  Bantams  must  be  more  nearly  perfect 
than  bantams  of  other  varieties.  To  conform  to  such  require- 
ments it  is  necessary  to  use  breeding  stock  of  perfect  form, 
pure  white  plumage,  and  carriage  and  general  make-up  fully 
equal  to  fowls  of  any  other  variety. 


WHEATEN  GAME  BANTAM 

80.  Wlieaten  females  are  produced  in  Game  Bantams 
the  same  as  in  large  game  fowls.  They  are  of  the  same  variety 
colors,  and  are  almost  perfect  in  form  and  color.  They  are 
useful  in  breeding  Duckwings,  the  lightest  shade  of  Silver 
Wheaten  being  used  for  breeding  the  lightest  shades  in  Duck- 
wings,  and  the  darker  shades  for  breeding  the  Golden  Duck- 
wings.  

JAPANESE  BANTAM 

81.  Japanese  Bantams  were  taken  to  England  from 
Japan  about  1860.  The  first  that  came  were  of  the  variety 
now  called  the  Black-Tailed  White  Japanese  Bantam.  Later, 
other  varieties  were  brought  and  distributed  throughout  Eng- 
land and  America.  Solid-colored  black,  and  solid-colored 
white,  silver  and  golden  duckwings,  gray,  buff,  and  splashed 
Japanese  Bantams  have  all  been  brought  from  Japan  at  dif- 
ferent times.  These  were  not  so  distinctly  separated  by  color 
into  varieties  as  to  come  actually  within  the  scope  of  the 
names  applied  to  them,  yet  they  had  the  color  and  markings 
from  which  such  varieties  have  been  made.  The  varieties  of 
Japanese  Bantams  recognized  in  the  American  Standard  are 
the  Black,  the  Black-Tailed  White,  and  the  White.  In  addi- 
tion to  these,  the  English  Standard  describes  the  Buff,  the 
Cuckoo,  the  Gray,  and  the  Speckled  Japanese  Bantam. 

82.  Origin. — ^AU  varieties  of  Japanese  Bantams  originated 
in  the  coimtry  for  which  they  are  named.  They  came  in 
many  indistinct  variety  colors,  the  most  pronoimced  of  which 


% 


Yokohama  and  Japanese  Bantams 


241-1  L  T  117    §  12 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  58a 

were  the  black  and  the  white.  Other  colors  were  brown,  gray, 
splashed,  and  yellow,  such  as  would  naturally  come  from 
promiscuous  breeding. 

83.  Development. — The  bantam  fanciers  of  England  did 
most  to  develop  and  separate  the  Japanese  Bantams  into 
varieties.  The  first  to  be  developed  was  the  Black-Tailed 
White  Japanese  Bantam,  which  has  continued  to  hold  the  most 
prominent  place  among  them.  Solid-colored  Black  and  solid- 
colored  White  Japanese  Bantams  were  next  developed  into 
variety  distinctions  that  made  them  popular;  and  then  the  other 
varieties  were  sparingly  developed.  None  has  become  so 
popular  as  the  Black-Tailed  White  Japanese  Bantam,  or  has 
been  bred  to  equal  this  variety  in  quality. 

84.  History. — Japanese  Bantams  were  first  taken  to 
England  about  1860,  and  some  years  later  they  were  imported 
into  America.  The  Black-Tailed  White  Japanese  Bantam 
was  described  in  the  original  American  Standard  of  1875,  and 
both  the  Black  and  the  White  Japanese  Bantam  is  mentioned 
in  the  American  Standard  of  1894.  Since  their  admission  to 
the  Standard,  these  three  varieties  have  been  considerably 
bred  and  greatly  improved  by  bantam  fanciers  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  Some  unique  bantams  have  been  pro- 
duced by  promiscuous  crossing  of  varieties. 

85.  Description  of  Shape. — ^When  mentioned  by  the 
earliest  writers,  the  Japanese  Bantams  were  called  Creepers, 
and  were  said  to  have  legs  so  short  as  to  give  them  the  appear- 
ance of  sliding  along  on  their  wing  flights,  which  seemed  to 
serve  as  runners.  This  description  might  be  applied  with 
some  degree  of  accuracy  to  the  females,  as  the  bodies  of  some 
of  them  seem  to  rest  on  the  ground  as  they  move  about.  The 
males  carry  their  heads  and  breasts  upright  rather  than  down 
and  forwards.  The  head  and  comb  of  a  Japanese  Bantam 
are  larger  in  proportion  than  the  same  parts  in  other  bantams; 
the  head  is  round  and  rather  broad;  the  beak  is  strong  and 
curved;  the  eyes,  large;  the  comb,  of  more  than  average  size 
for  bantams,  single,  straight  on  the  head,  and  evenly  serrated. 
In  all  varieties,  the  beak,  shanks,  and  feet  are  yellow. 


584  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

The  neck  is  short  and  carried  back  more  than  forwards ;  the 
body  is  short,  round,  and  compact;  the  breast,  prominent  and 
full,  and  carried  forwards.  The  back  is  very  short,  which  is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  head  and  tail  come  almost  together 
when  the  fowl  stands  erect.  The  wings  are  unusually  large 
and  long  for  the  size  of  the  fowl,  and  are  carried  low,  the  points 
or  ends  extending  back  of  the  body,  and  frequently  the  lower 
part  of  the  wings  touch  the  ground.  The  tails  of  both  males 
and  females  are  large  and  carried  erect,  the  forward  feathers 
reaching  the  head.  The  sickle  feathers  of  the  male  are  long, 
tapering  to  a  point,  and  but  slightly  curved.  These  are  called 
sword  feathers,  because  they  are  shaped  more  like  a  sword 
than  a  sickle.  The  legs  are  very  short;  the  shanks  and  toes 
are  smooth  and  shiny.  Both  males  and  females  are  profusely 
feathered,  the  hackles  being  imusually  long  for  a  bantam, 
and  the  saddle  plumage  of  the  male  very  profuse. 

The  standard  weight  for  Japanese  Bantam  cocks  is  26  ounces; 
for  cockerels  and  hens,  22  ounces;  and  for  pullets,  20  ounces. 
Four  oimces  in  excess  of  these  weights  will  disqualify  them. 
The  shape  and  carriage  of  the  Japanese  Bantams  are  well 
portrayed  in  the  color  illustrations. 

86.  Description  of  Variety  Colors. — The  Black  Jap- 
anese Bantam  has  the  beak,  shanks,  and  toes  yellow  or 
yellow  shaded  with  black;  the  eyes,  comb,  face,  wattles,  and 
ear  lobes  are  red.     The  plumage  is  lustrous  black  throughout. 

The  Black-Tailed  White  Japanese  Bantam  has  yellow 
beaks,  shanks,  and  toes,  and  bright-red  eyes,  comb,  face, 
wattles,  and  ear  lobes.  The  plumage  of  both  males  and  females 
is  white,  with  black  markings;  the  primaries  are  slate  or  black, 
edged  with  white;  the  secondaries  are  of  the  same  color  and 
markings  as  the  primaries,  except  that  they  have  a  wide  edge 
of  white  on  the  upper  web,  and,  when  the  wings  are  folded, 
the  black  does  not  show.  The  main  tail  feathers  of  both  males 
and  females  are  black;  the  sickles  and  coverts  of  the  male  are 
black,  edged  with  white;  the  coverts  of  the  females  are  white, 
some  marked  with  slate  color  or  black.  The  rest  of  the  plu- 
mage of  both  males  and  females  is  white. 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  585 

The  White  Japanese  Bantam  has  head  points,  shanks,  and 
feet  of  the  same  color  as  the  Black-Tailed  White  Japanese 
Bantam,  and  its  pliunage  is  piire  white  throughout. 

The  non-standard  Japanese  Bantam  varieties  are  the  Buff, 
the  Gray,  and  the  Speckled,  or  Spangled. 

The  Buff  Japanese  Bantam  should  have  the  same  color 
in  the  head  points,  shanks,  and  feet  as  the  Black-Tailed  White 
Japanese  Bantam.  The  plumage  should  be  buff  throughout, 
but  is  usually  marked  with  more  or  less  slate  color  or  black  in 
the  flights,  secondaries,  and  tail  feathers. 

The  Gray  Japanese  Bantam  might  be  separated  into  two 
varieties,  the  Birchen  and  the  Brown-Red,  as  they  correspond 
in  color  to  these  varieties  of  game  fowls.  These  variety  colors 
are  shown  in  the  color  illustration  of  the  Japanese  Bantams. 

The  Speckled,  or  Spangled,  Japanese  Bantam  is  mixed 
with  black  and  white  and  reddish  brown  and  white.  The 
colors  and  markings  are  more  like  those  of  the  Ancona  than  of 
any  other  fowl,  the  ground  color  in  one  being  black  splashed 
with  white,  and  in  the  other  reddish  brown  splashed  with  white 
or  straw  color. 

87.  Mating. — Unless  the  Japanese  Bantams  selected  for 
breeding  purposes  are  perfect  or  nearly  so  in  shape  and  feather, 
they  are  apt  to  fail  in  the  production  of  exhibition  offspring. 
It  is  equally  essential  that  they  should  have  color  and  mark- 
ings that  are  almost  perfect.  The  type  best  suited  for  the 
production  of  good  offspring  is  shown  in  the  color  illustration 
of  Japanese  Bantams. 

In  mating  for  the  production  of  Black  Japanese  Bantams, 
the  head  points  must  be  perfect;  the  beaks,  shanks,  and  toes 
as  nearly  perfect  as  possible;  plumage,  a  rich  glossy  black, 
with  very  dark  under  pltmiage;  carriage,  low,  with  body  close 
to  the  ground. 

Unusual  care  must  be  given  to  the  selection  of  the  Black- 
Tailed  White  Japanese  Bantams  for  breeding  purposes.  The 
features  of  prime  importance  are  perfect  tail  formation,  profuse 
sickles  and  tail  coverts,  each  feather  being  laced  with  white. 
The  black  and  the  white  in  the  wings  must  be  well  separated, 


586  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

and  the  more  intense  the  black,  the  more  likely  the  fowls  are 
to  produce  good  color  markings.  The  wing  markings  and 
main  tail  feathers  of  the  females  shotild  conform  to  those  in 
the  males,  with  the  exception  that  the  wings  need  not  be  so 
dark.  If  the  tail  coverts  of  the  females  are  white  throughout, 
with  no  dark  markings,  better  siurface  color  wUl  appear  in  the 
offspring.  The  breeding  stock  must  be  low  set  and  have 
yellow  beaks,  shanks,  and  toes.  Head  and  tail  should  be  car- 
ried erect  and  the  wings  carried  close  to  the  ground. 

Japanese  Bantams  mated  to  produce  the  white  variety 
must  be  excellent  in  breed  characters  and  have  pure  white 
plumage  throughout.  They  must  have  clear,  bright-red  eyes, 
and  golden-yellow  beaks,  shanks,  and  toes,  free  from  dark 
markings. 

Buff  Japanese  Bantams  should  be  selected  from  the  best 
that  can  be  bred.  So  little  progress  has  been  made  with  them 
that  a  strain  must  be  established  by  carefully  selecting  the 
best  and  breeding  them,  and  again  selecting  from  their  offspring 
and  continuing  to  mate  and  breed  until  perfect  Japanese  Ban- 
tam breed  characters  and  buff  color  have  been  established. 

Birchen  and  brown-red  color  have  been  produced  in  Japanese 
Bantams  by  mating  grays  with  blacks.  From  such  ma  tings 
offspring  have  been  produced  with  dark  body  color,  some  males 
and  some  females  being  laced  about  the  breast  with  light  gray 
or  straw  color;  the  top  color  of  some  males  was  gray,  and  of 
others  straw  color  or  yellow,  and  the  breasts  were  laced  to 
conform  to  the  top  color.  Birchen  and  brown-red  variety 
colors  can  be  established  in  the  same  way  as  in  game  and  game 
bantams.  From  the  promiscuous  matings  of  white,  gray,  and 
yellow  Japanese  Bantams,  variety  colors  without  distinction 
will  be  produced. 

88.  Frizzle  Japanese  Bantams. — The  original  Frizzle 
Bantams  were  brought  from  Japan  with  the  early  importa- 
tions of  Japanese  Bantams.  They  were  in  form  like  the  Japan- 
ese Bantams  but  had  feathers  like  the  Frizzle  fowls.  They  are 
mentioned  as  having  the  same  variety  colors  as  were  common 
with  the  Japanese  Bantams.     They  had  the  same  general 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  587 

characters  and  tail  formation  that  belong  exclusively  to  the 
Japanese  Bantam.  Mr.  Entwisle  mentions  that  he  has  seen 
them  of  almost  all  variety  colors  seen  on  Cochin  and  Japanese 
Bantams.  The  Frizzle  variety  has  been  so  neglected  as  to 
have  been  almost  lost  sight  of.  The  few  specimens  that  do 
exist  are  of  inferior  quality. 


MALAY  BANTAM 

89.  The  Malay  Bantam  conforms  in  type  and  color  to 
the  large  Malay  fowls.  When  bred  of  the  most  delicate  type, 
Malay  Bantams  are  more  slender  in  form  and  taller  on  the 
legs  than  the  Game  Bantams.  Those  that  have  been  bred  in 
America  are  too  bulky  in  body  formation  to  be  considered  with 
the  more  delicate  type  bred  in  England.  The  Black-Breasted 
Red  Malay  Bantam  is  the  only  variety  recognized  in  the 
American  Standard,  but  many  other  varieties  are  mentioned 
in  the  Malay  Bantam  Club  Standard  of  England. 

90.  Origin. — The  Malay  Bantams  were  made  by  inter- 
mingling Malay  fowls  with  Aseels,  Indian  Games,  and  Game 
Bantams.  The  best  that  could  be  produced  were  selected  and 
inbred  to  reduce  their  size. 

91.  Development. — Following  their  origin,  the  Malay 
Bantams  were  developed  into  their  present  form  and  were 
reduced  to  bantam  size  by  inbreeding. 

92.  History. — The  first  Malay  Bantams  were  made  by 
Mr.  Entwisle,  of  England.  Later  the  Malay  Bantam  Club 
of  England  was  formed  and  by  careful  breeding  the  bantams 
have  been  produced  of  many  variety  colors  and  of  perfect 
Malay  type. 

93.  Description  of  Shape. — The  following  description 
of  Malay  Bantams  is  taken  from  the  Malay  Bantam  Club 
Standard  of  England.  In  the  males,  the  beak  is  strong  and 
curved  downwards;  the  comb  is  small,  set  well  forwards, 
shaped  Hke  a  half  walnut,  and  as  free  from  irregularities  as 


588  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

possible;  the  skiill  is  broad,  with  deep-set  eyes  and  overhanging 
brows;  the  profile  of  the  skull  and  beak  approaches  the  shape 
of  a  segment  of  a  circle;  the  wattles  and  ear  lobes  are  small, 
the  bare  skin  extending  down  on  to  the  neck,  which  is  long 
and  carried  well  upright,  with  a  slight  curve;  the  hackle  is 
scant  except  at  the  base  of  the  skull.  The  body  is  very  wide 
and  square  at  the  shoulders  and  tapers  to  the  tail ;  the  shoulders 
are  prominent,  carried  well  up,  and  are  usually  bare  of  feathers 
at  the  points;  the  back  is  sloping  and  convex  in  outline;  the 
saddle  is  narrow  and  drooping;  the  feathers,  hard,  short,  and 
scant;  the  breast,  deep  and  full,  usually  bare  at  the  breastbone. 
The  thighs  are  long  and  muscular,  with  but  little  feathering, 
leaving  the  hock  exposed;  the  shanks,  long  and  evenly  scaled, 
flat  at  the  hocks,  and  gradually  rounding  to  the  point  where 
the  spurs  are  set  on ;  a  downward  curve  in  the  spurs  is  preferred ; 
the  toes  are  long  and  straight,  the  back  toe  being  close  to  the 
ground.  The  tail  is  drooping  but  the  feathers  in  it  are  not 
carried  close  together;  the  sickles  are  narrow  and  slightly  curved. 

The  females  should  resemble  the  males  in  type  and  station, 
except  that  the  tail  should  be  carried  horizontally  and  formed 
much  like  the  tail  of  Game  Bantam  females.  The  flesh  of  all 
Malay  Bantams  is  hard  and  firm  to  the  touch;  their  plumage 
is  hard  and  lustrous,  and  their  general  appearance  tall  and 
gaunt;  they  are  tall  in  front  and  drooping  in  the  rear;  they  have 
an  erect  carriage — the  position  as  erect  as  possible  at  the  hock. 

The  Standard  weights  in  England  for  exhibition  Malay 
Bantams  are :  Cocks,  3^  poimds ;  cockerels  and  hens,  3  poimds ; 
pullets,  2  pounds.  In  America,  the  weights  are:  Cocks, 
26  ounces;  cockerels  and  hens,  24  oimces;  piillets,  22  ounces; 
4  ounces  more  than  this  in  each  will  disqualify.  Such  small 
size  is  rarely  if  ever  attained. 

94.  Description  of  Variety  Colors. — All  varieties  of 
Malay  Bantams  with  the  colors  of  the  large  Malay  fowls — 
Red,  White,  Black,  Pyle,  and  Spangled — are  recognized  by  the 
Malay  Club  Standard. 

In  the  Red  and  Spangled  Malay  Bantam,  the  beak  should 
be  yeUow  or  brownish — yeUow  preferred;  in  the  Black  Malay 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  589 

Bantam,  yellow  or  blackish — yeUow  preferred;  in  the  White 
and  the  Pyle  Malay  Bantam,  3'ellow.  In  all  Malay  Bantams, 
the  comb,  face,  throat,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  shoiild  be  bright 
red;  the  eyes,  pearl  white  daw  (with  a  greenish  shade)  or  yel- 
low, but  the  lighter  in  color  the  better,  a  red  tinge  being  very 
objectionable;  the  shanks,  rich  3^eLLow,  though  in  the  Black 
Malay  Bantam,  a  slight  duskiness  may  be  overlooked. 

In  the  Red  Malay  Bantam  males  the  breast  and  imder- 
body  plumage  is  lustrous  black;  the  hackle,  saddle,  back,  and 
wing  bows,  rich  red;  the  wing  bars,  black;  the  secondaries, 
bright  bay;  the  flights,  black  on  the  inner  web,  with  red  edg- 
ing on  outside;  the  tail,  green  black.  Females  of  this  variety 
may  be  of  any  shade  of  cinnamon  or  wheaten,  preferably  with 
a  purplish  hackle;  those  with  partridge  markings,  cla}^  color, 
and  golden  hackle  are  also  allowable.  In  fowls  of  aU  these 
shades,  black  is  foimd  in  the  flights  and  tail. 

In  the  White  Malay  Bantam,  both  males  and  females  have 
pure  white  plumage  throughout,  free  from  yeUow,  black,  or 
rudd}^  feathers. 

In  the  Black  Malay  Bantam,  both  males  and  females  have 
glossy  black  plumage  throughout,  with  brilliant  green  and 
purple  luster,  green  predominant,  free  from  any  brassy  or  white 
feathers. 

In  the  Pyle  Malay  Bantam,  the  males  are  similar  to  the  males 
of  the  red  variety  in  markings  and  color,  except  that  they  are 
creamy  white  where  the  others  are  black.  The  female  has 
golden  hackles;  the  breast  is  a  salmon  color;  the  remainder  of 
the  pltimage  is  creamy  white. 

In  the  Spangled  Malay  Bantam,  both  males  and  females 
have  ground  color  much  like  that  of  the  Red  Malay  Bantam, 
except  that  in  the  males  an  admixture  of  red  and  white  with 
the  black  of  the  breast,  imder  parts,  thighs,  and  tail  is  desir- 
able. The  color  of  the  female  shoiild  be  rich  chestnut,  boldly 
marbled  with  black  and  white.  Each  feather  in  both  males 
and  females  should  somewhat  resemble  tortoise  sheU  in  the 
blending  of  the  red  or  chestnut  with  sheeny  black,  and  should 
have  a  white  tip  or  spangle;  even  the  long  feathers  of  the  taQ 
and  wings  shoiild  be  as  tricolored  as  possible. 


590  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

There  are  also  Wheaten-Pyle  Malay  Bantam  females  that 
resemble  Wheaten-Red  Game  females  in  every  respect  except 
that  the  flight  and  tail  feathers  are  creamy  white  instead  of 
black.  The  Wheaten-Spangled  Malay  Bantam  female  resem- 
bles the  Wheaten-Red  Malay  Bantam  females,  with  the  addi- 
tion of  a  plentiful  powdering  of  white  spangles.  These  wheaten 
females  are  not  attractive,  but  they  produce  beautiful  males. 

95.  Mating. — The  mating  of  Malay  Bantams  for  the 
production  of  exhibition  quality  requires  that  the  parent  fowls 
shall  be  carefully  selected  for  size,  shape,  and  variety  color. 
True-colored  fowls  should  be  mated  according  to  the  variety 
color  requirements  for  males  and  females. 


OLD-ENGLISH  GAME  BANTAM 

96.  The  English  Standard  contains  a  description  of  many 
varieties  of  Old-English  Game  fowls  and  recognizes  bantams 
of  the  same  varieties.  It  states  that  the  general  characters 
of  the  Old-Englisli  Game  Bantam  are  similar  to  those  of 
the  large  fowls  of  the  same  breed.  The  weight  of  males  is 
given  as  from  18  to  22  ounces;  of  females,  as  from  16  to  20 
oimces.  None  of  the  Old-English  Game  Bantam  varieties 
are  mentioned  in  the  American  Standard;  one  or  two  varieties 
have  been  shown  in  America,  but  the  Spangled  Old-English 
Game  Bantam  is  the  only  one  that  has  been  bred  to  any  extent. 

97.  Origin. — Bantam.s  of  the  Old-EngHsh  Game  type 
were  made  by  breeding  down  from  the  large  Old-English 
Game  fowls.  Many  varieties  were  bred;  those  most  popular 
in  England  are  the  spangled  and  the  black-red.  For  novelty 
in  color,  the  blue-red  takes  first  place.  The  black-reds  have 
color  and  markings  the  same  as  the  Black-Breasted  Red  Game ; 
the  Blue-Reds  have  a  bluish  tint  marked  with  red.  The  span- 
gled is  the  only  variety  that  has  been  bred  to  any  extent  in 
America.  This  variety  was  made  from  the  Spangled  Old- 
English  Game,  which  is  among  the  most  beautiful  plumaged 
of  all  the  game  fowls. 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  591 

98.  Development. — The  Old-English  Game  Bantams 
were  originated,  developed,  and  improved  in  England,  where 
they  have  been  bred  to  a  set  type  of  form  and  color. 

99.  History. — Old-English  Game  Bantams  having  the 
breed  characters  of  Pit  Game  fowls  have  been  bred  for  almost 
a  century.  Prior  to  1900,  there  was  so  little  of  distinctive 
character  in  them  that  they  were  eliminated  from  Standard 
consideration.  Since  that  time  they  have  been  so  improved 
by  the  fanciers  of  England  as  to  warrant  their  recognition  by 
the  Game  Club  of  England. 

100.  Description. — All  variety  colors  that  are  bred  in 
the  larger  fowls  are  bred  or  recognized  among  the  possibilities 
of  Old-English  Game  Bantam  fowls.  To  describe  all  the  vari- 
eties would  be  a  repetition  of  what  has  already  been  said  iinder 
Old-English  Game  fowls.  Spangled  Game  Bantams  have 
become  fairly  popular  in  America.  They  are  bred  in  several 
shades.  In  both  males  and  females,  the  beak,  shanks,  and 
toes  should  conform  in  color;  the  eyes  should  be  red  or  light- 
colored  like  the  Aseel;  the  face,  bright  red;  the  plumage  may 
be  black,  red,  blue,  or  buff  spangled  with  white,  the  spangling 
as  even  as  possible.  In  aU  varieties,  the  tail  shoiild  be  black 
and  white.  Some  of  the  most  beautiful  resemble  the  Jubilee 
Orpingtons  in  plimiage;  others  are  mottled  black  and  white, 
but  are  not  so  attractive  as  the  red,  blue,  or  biiff  spangled 
varieties.  Full  information  relative  to  other  variety  colors 
wiU  be  foimd  in  the  description  of  Old-EngHsh  Game  fowls. 

101.  Mating. — To  succeed  in  producing  any  variety  of 
Old-English  Game  Bantams  requires  careful  selection  of  per- 
fect type  and  variety  colors.  Males  and  females  having  the 
same  color  of  eyes,  beaks,  shanks,  feet,  and  plumage  should 
be  mated.  This  rule  should  be  followed  in  every  variety, 
for  in  no  other  way  can  a  line  of  breeding  be  established  that 
will  produce  offspring  of  the  same  color  as  the  parents. 


592  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 


POLISH  BANTAM 

102.  From  time  to  time,  new  varieties  of  miniature  Polish 
fowls  have  been  produced.  Some  of  them  have  been  much 
too  large  to  be  considered  as  bantams,  yet  their  beautiful  form 
and  attractive  colors  have  always  gained  the  highest  praise 
and  more  or  less  public  attention.  Mr.  Entwisle  was  the  most 
successful  producer  of  these  in  England,  and  F.  B.  Zimmer,  of 
New  York,  in  America."  The  White  and  the  Buff  Laced  Polish 
Bantam  are  the  two  varieties  that  have  been  made  and  accepted 
in  America  as  standard.  The  English  Standard  admits,  as 
worthy  of  consideration,  all  Polish  Bantams  that  conform  to 
the  breed  characters  and  colors  of  the  large  Polish  fowls. 

103.  Origin. — The  Polish  Bantams  were  made  by  cross- 
ing Polish  males  with  bantam  females. 

The  Wliite-Crested  Black  Polish.  Bantara  was  pro- 
duced by  mating  Polish  males  of  the  large  variety  with  Black 
Rose-Comb  Bantam  females. 

The  Buff  Laced  Polish  Bantam  and  the  Golden  Polish 
Bantam  was  produced  by  crossing  Golden  Spangled  Polish 
males  with  Golden  Sebright  Bantam  females,  and  selecting 
the  best  for  making  Golden  Laced  Polish  Bantams.  Such  as 
were  indifferently  marked  were  mated  with  very  small  Buff 
Laced  Polish  fowls. 

The  Silver  Laced  Polish  Bantam  was  made  by  crossing 
Silver  Laced  Polish  males  with  Silver  Laced  Sebright  Bantam 
females. 

The  White  Polish  Bantam  was  made  by  crossing  White 
Polish  males  with  White  Rose-Comb  Bantam  females. 

Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  all  varieties  of  Polish  Bantams 
were  originally  made  by  crossing  the  several  varieties  of  Polish, 
selecting  small  males  with  large  crests  and  mating  them  with 
Rose-Comb  Bantam  and  Sebright  Bantam  females;  the  product 
of  these  several  crosses  were  selected  and  remated,  and  this 


u=.-^'? 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  593 

was  continued  until  bantams  of  all  variety  colors  known  in 
Polish  fowls  were  produced.  Trouble  was  experienced  in 
getting  rid  of  the  comb  in  the  Polish  Bantams. 

F.  B.  Zimmer,  who  made  the  Bearded  White-Crested  White 
Polish  Bantams  in  America,  began  with  some  Non-Bearded 
White  Polish  Bantams  that  originated  by  accident  in  Massa- 
chusetts. He  mated  a  White-Crested  White  Polish  fowl  with 
them,  and  bred  them  down  until  he  had  Bearded  White  Polish 
Bantams  with  Y-shaped  combs,  and  shanks  and  toes  of  a 
bluish  shade. 

104.  Development. — The  Polish  Bantams,  with  the 
exception  of  the  white  variety,  have  been  so  sparingly  bred 
throughout  the  world  as  to  make  it  almost  impossible  to  tell 
of  any  development  in  them,  other  than  as  stated  in  the  account 
of  their  origin. 

105.  History. — ^About  1883,  several  varieties  of  Polish 
Bantams  were  mentioned,  and  the  same  year  one  variety,  the 
White-Crested  White  Polish,  was  included  in  the  American 
Standard.  This  bantam  was  described  as  having  a  single 
comb,  and  a  large,  abundant  crest,  with  no  beard.  In  the 
American  Standard  of  1900,  White-Crested  and  Buff  Laced 
Polish  Bantams  are  mentioned,  both  having  single  combs,  or 
leaf  combs.  In  the  White-Crested  Non-Bearded  Polish  Ban- 
tams, the  shanks  and  feet  are  white ;  in  the  White  Bearded  and 
the  Buff  Laced  Polish  Bantams,  the  shanks  and  feet  are  blue 
or  slaty  blue.  In  the  Standard  of  1905,  the  combs  of  Polish 
Bantams  are  described  as  very  small  and  Y  shaped ;  the  shanks 
and  toes,  as  blue  or  slaty  blue  in  all  varieties.  Since  the  issuing 
of  that  Standard,  Buff  Laced  Polish  Bantams  have  been  seen 
but  seldom,  and  but  few  White-Crested  White  Polish  Bantams 
have  been  shown. 

106.  Description. — ^AU  varieties  of  Polish  Bantams, 
whether  bearded  or  non-bearded,  must  conform  in  a  general 
way  to  the  shape  and  color  description  of  the  Polish  fowls. 
Polish  Bantams  must  be  small  and  perfect  in  breed  characters 
and   plimiage   color.     The   weights   of  Polish   Bantams   are: 


594  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

Cocks,    26   ounces;   cockerels   and  hens,    22   ounces;   pullets, 
20  ounces;  4  ounces  more  than  these  weights  will  disqualify. 

107.  Mating. — The  same  general  rules  that  are  given  for 
mating  Polish  fowls  of  all  varieties  must  be  applied  to  the 
matings  of  Polish  Bantams,  and  the  breeder  must  always  have 
in  mind  the  fact  that  the  bantams  must  equal  the  large  fowls 
in  crest,  beard,  and  plimiage  color.  In  addition  to  this,  they 
must  be  small.  Whenever  they  exceed  disqualifying  weights, 
they  should  be  discarded  as  bantams.  The  best  method  of 
controlling  size  is  to  hatch  only  from  matiu-e  hens  that  do  not 
exceed  the  limit  of  weight,  and  are  smaller  if  possible.  These 
hens  shoiild  be  mated  with  males  of  the  same  variety  that  are 
small  and  perfect  in  all  qualities  that  are  most  desirable  in 
Polish  fowls. 


ROSE-COMB  BANTAM 


ORIGIN 


108.  The  original  bantams  from  which  the  Rose-Comb 
Ban  tain  is  said  to  have  come  were  known  as  Black  Bantams 
and  White  Bantams  long  before  poiiltry  literature  began  to 
appear.  They  are  said  to  have  existed  both  with  and  with- 
out feathers  on  their  shanks,  and  were,  perhaps,  of  the  same 
blood  as  the  Hamburgs.  They  are  frequently  mentioned  by 
the  earliest  poultry  writers,  and  some  authorities  have  claimed 
that  they  were  the  originals  of  all  bantams.  From  the  best 
information  that  can  be  gathered,  it  would  seem  that  priority 
should  be  divided  among  the  Nankin,  the  Silky,  the  Black, 
and  the  White  Bantams.  All  of  these  existed  centuries  ago 
and  seem  to  have  had  a  separate  origin. 

Although  the  Black  and  the  White  Bantams  were  of  such 
early  origin  and  have  continued  to  be  called  Black  and  White 
Rose-Comb  Bantams,  as  they  now  exist  they  are  small  Harh- 
burgs.  They  were  made  by  the  bantam  breeders  of  England, 
who  have  continued  their  improvement. 


12  BANTAM  FOWLS  695 


BLACK  ROSE-COMB  BANTAM 

109.  Origin. — The  present  type  of  Black  Rose-Comb 

Bantam  was  made  by  crossing  Black  Hamburg  males  with 
Rose-Comb  Bantam  females.  In  this  way  they  were  changed 
from  their  former  bulky  appearance  to  the  slender  and  trim 
bantam  of  the  present. 

110.  Development.— E.  Hutton,  F.  Z.  S.,  of  England, 
was  the  first  to  develop  the  Black  Rose-Comb  Bantams,  and 
he  continued  their  improvement  until  he  made  them  miniature 
Hamburgs. 

111.  History. — Improvement  began  in  the  Black  Rose- 
Comb  Bantam  about  1850.  At  that  time  some  were  mentioned 
as  having  double  and  some  as  having  single  combs.  Those 
having  single  combs  were  called  Game  Dandies.  The  dif- 
ficulties in  the  Black  Rose-Comb  Bantam  were  the  tendencies 
to  red  in  the  ear  lobes  and  splashes  of  red  and  white  in  the  plu- 
mage. This  was  partly  overcome  by  mating  together  the 
Black  and  the  White  Rose-Comb  Bantams  for  the  improve- 
ment of  ear  lobes.  These  early  efforts  brought  poor  results 
in  comparison  with  what  has  since  been  accomplished  by  the 
introduction  of  the  Black  Hamburg  blood.  White  and  Black 
Bantams  are  mentioned  in  the  earliest  Standards.  They  have 
been  called  African  Bantams  and  Crow  Chickens.  A  marked 
change. has  been  made  in  them  since  1890,  and  all  or  most  of 
the  improvements  have  been  brought  about  through  the 
special  efforts  of  a  few  bantam  fanciers  in  England;  and 
although  some  of  sterling  quality  have  been  bred  in  America, 
the  credit  for  their  beautiful  form  and  feathers  belongs  to 
England. 

112.  Description. — The  Black  Rose-Comb  Bantam  is 
a  miniature  Black  Hambtirg,  and  its  beauty  of  form  and  plu- 
mage is  shown  in  the  color  illustration.  The  main  feature  for 
consideration  is  neat  formation  of  head,  including  comb, 
wattles,  and  ear  lobes.  The  ear  lobes  should  be  round,  of 
uniform  thickness,  close  to  the  side  of  the  face,  smooth,  and  as 


59G  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

soft  and  white  as  possible.  The  surface  shotild  have  a  texture 
like  the  finest  finished  white  kid.  English  breeders  state  that 
the  lobe  should  not  be  smaller  than  a  sixpence  nor  larger  than 
a  shilling.  This  description  will  need  altering,  as  some  are 
now  bred  with  ear  lobes  twice  as  large  as  a  shilling,  which  is 
about  the  size  of  an  American  quarter.  The  eyes  should  be 
hazel  or  brown;  the  shanks,  black,  perfectly  smooth,  and  free 
from  feathers  or  down. 

The  tail  formation  is  of  more  importance,  beauty  consid- 
ered, than  any  other  section.  The  sickles  should  be  long, 
broad  at  the  base,  well  circled,  and  without  sharp  points  at 
the  ends.  The  inner  or  lesser  sickles  should  not  overlap  the 
main  tail  feathers.  The  lesser  sickles,  including  the  coverts, 
shoiild  be  profuse,  with  long,  flowing  saddle  feathers  and  neck 
hackle  reaching  almost  to  the  base  of  the  tail.  All  features 
desirable  in  the  males  should  be  present  in  the  females  in  an 
effeminate  degree.  Beauty  of  comb,  carriage  of  wing,  and 
graceful  carriage  of  the  body  are  attractive  features.  Long 
legs,  close  body  formation,  hollows  in  the  comb,  wings  tucked 
up,  and  irregularly  formed  or  small  ear  lobes  are  the  most 
serious  faults.  White  in  the  face  or  foreign  color  of  any  kind 
in  the  ear  lobes  shoiild  not  be  countenanced.  The  plumage 
shoiild  be  rich  glossy  black  throughout,  with  no  trace  of  for- 
eign color  and  with  under  plumage  dark  in  comparison  with 
the  surface  plumage. 

113.  Mating. — ^Average  quality  will  be  produced  in  the 
Black  Rose-Comb  Bantam  by  mating  males  and  females  that 
are  fit  for  exhibition.  Scientific  matings,  however,  require 
double  or  separate  matings  for  producing  males  and  females. 
Matings  for  producing  cockerels  must  be  made  from  males 
perfect  in  Hamburg  breed  characters,  with  long  flowing  tails, 
the  sickles  of  which  overlap  the  main  tail  feathers.  The 
females  in  this  mating  should  have  tails  longer  than  are  desir- 
able for  exhibition.  Such  females  can  be  produced  only  from 
matings  for  the  production  of  the  latest  type  of  exhibition 
males,  and  then  only  when  the  male-producing  type  has  been 
well  established  in  a  strain. 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  597 

Matings  for  producing  females  must  consist  of  exhibition 
females  absolutely  perfect  in  every  section,  mated  with  males 
that  resiilt  naturally  from  pullet-bred  matings.  The  main 
tail  feathers  of  such  males  usually  extend  an  inch  or  more 
beyond  the  sickle  feathers.  The  sickles,  lesser  sickles,  and  tail 
coverts  are  considerably  shorter  than  the  same  in  exhibition 
males.  If  this  manner  of  mating  is  continued  long  enough, 
the  males  from  the  pullet-bred  line  may  eventually  become 
hen-tailed  like  Sebright  males.  As  yet,  this  process  has  not 
gone  far  enough  to  have  so  influenced  their  plumage,  but  it 
has  shortened  the  main  tail  feathers  of  the  males  and  so  reduced 
the  saddle  coverts  and  the  lesser  and  greater  sickles  as  to  have 
produced  a  line  of  breeding  of  which  the  males  are  more  like 
females  and  the  females  of  the  male  line  are  more  like  males 
in  many  respects  than  is  usual  in  any  other  variety  of  bantam. 

The  tail  plumage  of  Rose-Comb  Bantams  usually  has  more 
length  and  is  more  profuse  in  cockerels  than  in  cocks.  This 
difference  in  the  plumage  of  the  males  must  not  be  accepted 
as  evidence  that  all  the  cocks  with  short  sickles  are  from  a 
pullet -bred  line.  The  only  assurance  of  ptdlet-bred  males 
is  to  breed  them  as  described,  or  to  secure  them  from  a  strain 
that  is  known  to  have  been  well  established  for  the  produc- 
tion of  males  and  females  from  separate  lines  of  breeding. 


WHITE  ROSE- COMB  BANTAM 

114.  Origin. — The  original  home  of  the  greatest  number 
of  fowls  of  the  White  Rose -Comb  Bantam  variety  was 
Yorkshire,  England.  This  variety  seems  to  have  been  a  prime 
favorite  with  the  early  bantam  fanciers  of  that  locality.  The 
White  Rose-Comb  Bantam,  as  bred  in  Yorkshire,  was  taken  up 
by  E.  Hutton,  who  bred  them  with  Black  Rose-Comb  Ban- 
tams for  the  improvement  of  both.  The  White  Hamburgs 
at  that  time  did  not  have  quality  equal  to  the  Black  Hamburgs, 
and,  for  this  reason,  a  cross  of  White  Hamburgs  and  white 
bantams  did  not  prove  as  successful  as  the  cross  of  the  two 
varieties  of  Rose-Comb  Bantams. 


598  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

115.  Development. — The  White  Rose-Comb  Bantam 
was  finally  developed  by  selecting  the  best  and  crossing  them 
with  White  Hamburgs,  and  then  selecting  and  mating  the 
offspring  for  improving  their  quality. 

116.  History. — The  White  Rose-Comb  Bantam  was 
developed  at  about  the  same  time  that  the  Black  Rose-Comb 
Bantam  was  improved.  For  lack  of  new  blood  suitable  for 
breeding  with  them,  the  bantams  of  the  white  variety  did  not 
improve  as  rapidly  as  those  of  the  black  variety,  and  they 
are  less  vigorous  and  more  susceptible  to  ailments.  Finally, 
a  cross  with  the  black  variety  was  resorted  to;  this  resulted  in 
greatly  improving  the  vitality  and  reproducing  powers  of 
bantams  of  the  white  variety,  which  are  now  almost  equal  in 
quality  to  those  of  the  black  variety. 

117.  Description. — White  Rose-Comb  Bantams  must 
conform  in  every  way  to  Black  Rose-Comb  Bantams,  color 
excepted.  Their  beak,  shanks,  and  toes  are  white,  usually 
showing  a  pinkish  tinge.  Their  pliimage  is  pure  white  through- 
out, including  the  under  plumage;  the  comb,  face,  and  wattles 
are  red;  the  ear  lobes,  white.  The  eyes  in  this  variety  are 
reddish  bay. 

Although  Rose-Comb  Bantams  should  be  small,  it  is  possible 
to  have  the  males  much  too  small  to  carry  the  proper  amount 
of  tail  feathering.  A  little  more  size  associated  with  beautiful 
body  and  tail  plumage  is  more  desirable  than  small  size  with 
deficient  tail.  Serious  faults  in  the  White  Rose-Comb  Bantam 
are  dark  color  in  the  shariks  and  toes,  wings  carried  too  high; 
foreign  color  of  any  kind  in  the  plumage,  including  yellow  or 
cream  color.  The  proper  wing  carriage  in  all  Rose-Comb 
Bantams  is  shown  in  the  color  illustration. 

The  weights  of  Rose-Comb  Bantams  are:  Cocks,  26  ounces; 
cockerels  and  hens,  22  ounces;  pullets,  20  ounces;  2  oimces  in 
excess  of  these  weights  will  disqualify. 

118.  Mating. — The  finest  exhibition  White  Rose-Comb 
Bantams  are  best  for  producing  offspring  for  exhibition. 
Better  tail  and  body  formation  in  both  males  and  females 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  599 

might  be  produced  if  the  same  plan  of  mating  were  adopted 
that  is  followed  for  the  production  of  males  and  females  of  the 
Black  Rose-Comb  Bantam.  The  White  Rose-Comb  Bantam 
has  never  become  so  popular  as  the  Black  Rose-Comb  Ban- 
tam, and  for  this  reason  equal  attention-  has  not  been  given 
to  improving  them.  

SEBRIGHT  BANTAM 


ORIGIN 


119.  Sir  John  Sebright,  M.  P.  for  Herts,  England,  origi- 
nated the  Sebright  Bantam.  Much  has  been  written  rela- 
tive to  this  breed  and  its  origin,  and  some  theories  have  been 
advanced  by  those  not  well  informed  on  Nature's  laws  of 
reproduction.  In  1860,  W.  B.  Tegetmeier  recorded  in  his 
"Poultry  Book,"  the  following  statement  fiirnished  by  Sir 
Thomas  Sebright,  who  lived  at  that  time:  "It  was  about  the 
year  1800  that  the  late  Sir  John  Sebright  began  to  fashion  the 
Sebright  Bantams.  The  first  cross  was  between  a  common 
bantam  and  the  Polish  fowl.  The  offspring  resulting  from  this 
alliance  were  bred  in-and-in  imtil  the  required  markings  and 
size  were  secured.  Sir  John  then  accidentally  found  a  hen- 
tailed  bantam  cock  in  the  country  where  he  was  traveling. 
This  short-tailed  fowl  he  inbred  with  his  new  bantams.  Thereby 
the  progeny  gained  their  present  form  of  square  tails." 

Sir  Thomas  was  quite  satisfied  that  it  was  the  Polish  and  not 
the  Golden  Pheasant  (now  called  the  Spangled  Hamburg) 
with  which  the  bantam  was  first  crossed.  For  more  than 
50  years  the  theory  of  this  method  was  combated  by  poultry 
writers.  Crosses  were  finally  made  with  Golden  Polish  males 
and  Nankin,  Cochin,  and  Rose-Comb  Bantam  females.  From 
such  matings,  small  fowls  were  produced,  some  of  them  having 
buff  color  and  some  white,  and  laced  about  the  edges  of  the 
feathers.  Within  a  few  years,  both  crests  and  single  combs 
were  gone  as  a  result  of  selection  and  careful  mating.  Since 
that  time  the  statements  made  by  both  Sir  John  and  Sir  Thomas 
Sebright  have  been  accepted. 


600  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

Later  research  has  discovered  records  showing  that  the  first 
matings  for  the  production  of  this  variety  of  bantams  were 
made  in  1796  and  that  Sir  John  was  so  thoroughly  interested 
in  their  production  that  he  frequently  traveled  many  miles 
to  see  and  consider'  the  value  of  certain  kinds  of  fowls  for 
assisting  in  perfecting  what  he  was  desirous  of  producing. 
The  Rev.  Mr.  Dixon  states  that  Sir  John  traveled  many 
thousand  mUes  to  inspect  small  fowls,  and  it  is  supposed  that 
in  some  of  these  travels  he  foimd  the  hen-tailed  bantam  male 
mentioned  by  Sir  Thomas.  One  who  was  associated  with 
Sir  John  stated  that  the  original  hen-tailed  fowl  was  not  only 
small  but  possessed  spangled  plumage.  Spangling  at  that  time 
indicated  half -moon  markings  about  the  ends  of  the  feathers. 

From  the  matings  made,  the  varieties  were  selected,  one 
having  very  light  or  white  ground  color,  the  other  with  salmon 
or  yellow  ground  color,  both  laced,  or,  as  Mr.  Moubray  said 
in  1834,  "beautifully  striped  and  variegated."  One  of  these 
was  named  the  Golden  and  the  other  the  Silver  Sebright 
Bantam. 

GOLDEN  SEBRIGHT  BANTAM 

120.  Origin. — The  Golden  Sebright  Bantam  was  made 
from  the  early  Sebright  Bantams  as  a  result  of  care  being  given 
to  selecting  and  mating  to  produce  bantams  having  the  breed 
characters,  color,  and  markings  portrayed  in  the  color  illustra- 
tion. 

121.  Development. — The  Golden  Sebright  Bantam  has 
been  developed  from  small  fowls  that  resembled  the  present 
type  of  Sebright  but  that  were  larger,  longer  in  the  leg,  and 
had  tail  feathers  with  an  indistinct  ground  color  of  yellow  or 
buff.  The  feathers  were  marked  with  what  is  called  horse- 
shoe lacing,  which  was  irregular  in  form  and  width  and  circled 
Hke  a  crescent  about  the  end  of  the  feather,  not  going  back 
more  than  two-thirds  of  the  web.  From  such  fowls  the  Golden 
Sebright  Bantams  were  developed,  and  many  of  them  are  so 
beautifiilly  laced  about  the  edges  of  the  feathers  that  the 
lacing  seems  to  have  been  laid  on  ynth  geometrical  precision. 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  601 

122.  History. — The  history  of  the  Golden  Sebright  Ban- 
tam begins  with  the  original  Standard  description,  which  was 
printed  in  1863.  It  describes  them  as  having  plumage  of  a 
rich  golden  yellow,  every  feather  being  laced  with  black. 
From  then  to  the  present,  improvements  have  been  made  in 
them  until  Standard  demands  are  so  rigid  in  respect  to  form 
and  color  as  to  make  their  production  most  difficult. 

123.  Description. — The  Golden  Sebright  Bantam  has 
head  points  like  the  Hamburg  and  the  Rose-Comb  Bantam, 
the  main  difference  being  that  the  comb  is  smaller,  with  shorter 
spikes.  The  wings  are  carried  low;  the  tail  is  erect  and  well 
spread;  the  tail  formation  is  alike  in  both  males  and  females, 
there  being  no  sickles  permissible  in  the  males;  and  the  hackle 
and  saddle  of  both  males  and  females  are  alike,  no  saddle 
feathers  growing  on  the  male.  The  peciiliarity  of  color  in  this 
variety  is  the  purple  or  gypsy  color  of  the  face ;  the  ear  lobes  are 
the  same  color  or  mixed  with  red,  some  of  them  being  burnished 
with  enamel  white.     The  shanks  and  toes  are  blue  or  slaty  blue. 

In  general  formation,  they  are  short  in  the  back  and  upright 
in  carriage;  the  top  of  the  tail  and  head  are  carried  at  about 
the  same  height.  The  eyes  are  brown,  large,  and  bright. 
The  plimiage  is  golden  yellow  throughout,  each  feather  laced 
with  black;  the  under  plumage  is  dark  or  slate.  The  surface 
color  in  females  is  not  so  rich  or  deep  a  shade  of  golden  yellow 
as  in  the  males.  The  shade  of  plumage  color  described  for 
this  variety  in  the  English  Standard  is  different  from  that 
described  in  the  American  Standard.  The  English  Standard 
states  that  the  ground  color  should  be  golden  bay  with  glossy, 
green-black  lacing,  and  dark  gray  color  in  imder  plimiage, 
each  feather  being  evenly  laced  around  the  edge  with  a  narrow 
margin  of  black. 

The  weights  of  Sebright  Bantams  are:  Cocks,  26  ounces; 
cockerels  and  hens,  22  ounces;  pullets,  20  oimces;  4  ounces 
more  than  these  weights  will  disqualify. 

124.  Mating. — ^A  breeder  who  has  been  most  expert  in 
the  production  of  exhibition  Sebright  Bantams  states  that 
they  are  more  uncertain  of  production  than  the  Golden  and 


602  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

the  Silver  Laced  Wyandottes.  Although  they  have  been  bred 
for  more  than  a  century,  the  only  way  to  produce  them  of  a 
good  quahty  is  to  establish  a  strain  and  inbreed  them  to  the 
limit;  only  when  such  a  strain  has  been  established  should 
new  blood  be  introduced;  such  new  blood  must  be  made  from 
several  years  of  carefiil  breeding  from  another  strain  of  equal 
quality.  This  means  that  a  fancier  should  breed  and  inbreed 
his  own  strain  in  one  place  and  should  have  a  few  of  another 
strain  in  other  pens  which  are  inbred  to  the  same  extent,  and 
that  from  time  to  time  he  should  refresh  each  strain  with  blood 
from  the  other. 

In  mating  the  Golden  Sebright  Bantam  for  the  fine  line 
markings,  the  tmder  plimiage  in  the  back  of  the  female  should 
be  of  a  yellowish  shade.  The  most  difficult  problem  in  breed- 
ing Sebright  Bantams  is  to  establish  and  maintain  perfect 
plimiage  color,  which  should  be  golden  bay  or  golden  yellow, 
not  pale  yellow.  Bantams  with  rich  yellow  plumage  can  be 
bred  from  golden-bay  males,  but  few  of  even  passing  quality 
in  color  and  markings  will  be  bred  from  those  with  a  yellow 
body  color,  even  though  it  may  be  laced  with  black.  The  color 
of  the  males  should  be  rich  golden  bay  as  dark  as  the  body 
color  of  the  Golden  Laced  V/yandotte  males.  Each  feather 
must  be  laced  with  brilliant  glossy  black,  and  this  lacing  may 
be  somewhat  wider  than  is  desired  in  the  exhibition  pen. 
Females  may  be  one  and  even  two  shades  lighter  m  body  color 
than  the  males,  and  they  may  have  a  black  edging  of  less 
width  than  is  required  in  the  males.  The  head  points  should 
be  as  nearly  perfect  as  possible.  More  details  in  regard,  to 
mating  will  be  found  in  connection  with  the  mating  of  Silver 
Sebright  Bantams. 

SILVER  SEBRIGHT  BANTAM 

125.  Origin,  Developmeiit,  and  History. — The  Silver 
Sebriglit  Bantam  had  the  same  origin,  development,  and 
history  as  the  Golden  Sebright  Bantam. 

■  126.     Description.- — The  color  markings  of  the  Sebright 
Bantams  are  the  same  in  both  varieties,  with  the  exception  of 


§12  BANTAM  FOWLS  603 

the  ground  color,  which  is  golden  yellow  or  golden  bay  in  one 
variety,  and  silvery  white  in  the  other  variety.  In  the  Silver 
Sebright  Bantam,  the  groimd  color  of  the  entire  plumage  should 
be  white,  but  not  so  transparent  as  to  permit  a  reflection  from 
the  dark  color  of  the  under  plirmage  to  show  through.  A 
creamy  or  yellow  tint  may  at  times  mar  the  purity  of  the  white, 
and  the  cross-mating  of  the  two  varieties  causes  the  washed- 
out  or  faded  yellow  shade  of  body  color  in  the  Golden  Sebright 
Bantam. 

The  lacing  of  the  feathers  is  of  prime  importance.  To  con- 
form to  Standard  description,  this  should  be  narrow.  Some 
Silver  Sebright  Bantams  have  a  fine  line  of  black  about  the 
edge  of  the  feather,  this  line  of  black  being  so  intense  with  a 
shining  green  sheen  as  to  make  the  marking  brilliant.  This 
is  the  proper  style  of  marking  for  Sebright  Bantams,  but  it 
is  most  difficult  to  obtain.  The  Standard  requires  a  dark 
shade  of  color  in  the  under  plumage  of  exhibition  fowls,  and 
this  cannot  be  depended  on  for  best  results  in  matings.  The 
head,  comb,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  must  be  of  perfect  forma- 
tion, and  in  accord  with  the  Standard  description.  The  eyes 
of  the  Silver  Sebright  Bantam  are  brown,  the  same  as  in  the 
Golden  Sebright  Bantam,  although  they  frequently  show  a 
reddish  shade. 

127.  Mating. — In  the  mating  of  Silver  Sebright  Ban-' 
tam  fowls  for  best  results,  every  feather  of  those  selected  should 
be  surrounded  with  a  line  of  greenish  black;  the  black  lacing 
of  the  males  should  be  wider  than  is  desirable  in  the  exhi- 
bition fowls.  The  lacing  of  the  females  should  not  be  so  wide 
nor  so  heavy  as  in  the  males,  but  it  should  be  wider  than  the 
Standard  requires,  and  the  ground  color  should  be  absolutely 
free  from  mossing  or  foreign  color  of  any  kind. 

Where  matings  are  made  to  produce  the  extremely  narrow 
lacing,  care  must  be  taken  to  have  enough  lacing  in  the  males 
to  prevent  the  absence  of  lacing  in  the  offspring.  Color  will 
be  best  sustained  from  the  strength  of  the  color  of  the  under 
plimiage  of  the  fowls  used  in  the  matings.  To  breed  very  dark, 
intense  markings  of  medium  width,  dark  or  slate  color  in  the 


604  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 

under  plumage  will  be  needed.  For  the  production  of  fine 
black  lines  on  the  edge  of  the  feathers,  males  having  slate  color 
in  the  imder  pltimage  and  females  that  have  slate  color  in  the 
under  plumage  of  the  breast  and  body  and  are  almost  white 
in  the  under  plumage  of  the  back  will  produce  best;  but  some 
of  the  offspring  so  produced  will  be  so  lightly  laced  as  to  be 
of  but  little  value. 

One  of  the  most  difficult  problems  to  overcome  in  the  pro- 
duction of  Silver  Sebright  Bantams  is  faulty  color  and  lacing 
in  the  tail  feathers.  To  produce  males  and  females  with  clean, 
clear,  white  tail  feathers,  with  no  smut  on  the  inider  side  of 
the  feathers,  and  each  feather  laced  with  a  line  of  black, 
requires  matings  that  cannot  be  described,  but  which  can  be 
made  only  by  years  of  experience  in  breeding  and  mating  a 
strain  for  the  production  of  such  color.  From  the  introduc- 
tion of  new  blood,  many  badly  marked  offspring  are  likely  to 
occur.  

SILKY  BANTAM 

128.  The  Silky  Bantam  has  been  made  by  selecting 
Silky  fowls  of  the  smallest  size  and  inbreeding  them  to  reduce 
size.  Silky  Bantams  have  not  been  developed  enough  to  equal 
other  bantams  in  size  or  breed  characters. 

129.  History. — Silky  fowls  are  known  to  have  existed 
centturies  ago,  at  which  time  they  were  called  wooUy  hens. 
It  is  thought  that  they  originated  in  India,  and  they  have  been 
foimd  in  many  of  the  Oriental  coimtries.  They  have  been 
used  for  hatching  bantam,  pheasant,  and  guinea-fowl  eggs, 
as  they  are  good  mothers  for  this  piupose. 

130.  Description. — The  breed  characters  of  the  Silky 
Bantam  are  shown  in  the  color  illustration.  The  peculiarity 
in  this  variety  is  the  walnut,  or  strawberry  comb,  as  it  is  called. 
The  beak,  comb,  face,  wattles,  and  ear  lobes  are  blue,  purple, 
or  gypsy  color;  the  shanks  and  toes  are  much  the  same  color; 
the  plumage  is  white ;  the  skin  and  flesh  are  of  a  peculiar  bluish 
tinge.     Sample  feathers  of  the  Silky  Bantam  are  shown  in 


§12 


BANTAM  FOWLS 


605 


Fig.  5;  in  (a)  is  shown  a  male  hackle  feather,  and  in  (b)  is  shown 
a  feather  from  the  body  plumage  of  a  female.  In  size,  the 
Silky  Bantam  should  be  about  the  same  as  a  Cochin  Bantam. 
The  female  has  a  small  oval  crest,  and  the  crest  of  the  male 
grows  back  of  the  comb  and  extends  out  in  the  rear.  The 
shanks  and  the  outer  toe  are  sparingly  feathered.  The  Silky 
has  five  toes. 


Other  varieties  such  as  gold,  brown,  and  black  are  men- 
tioned by  Mr.  Entwisle,  who  states  also  that  he  had  white 
Silky  Bantam  fowls  that  were  red  faced,  and  some  that  were 
purple  faced;  some  had  single  and  others  had  walnut  combs. 
Brown  Silky  Bantams  are  occasionally  seen,  but  golden  and 
black  varieties  do  not  exist  at  the  present  time. 


131.  Mating. — In  the  mating  of  Silky  fowls  to  produce 
small  or  bantam  fowls  it  is  necessary  to  select  small  females 
and  to  mate  them  with  small  males,  hatching  the  chicks  late 
in  the  season  and  rearing  them  diuing  the  winter  months. 
Special  attention  must  be  given  to  the  selecting  of  fowls  with 
perfect  combs  and  crests;  the  crests  should  be  as  perfect  in 
form  and  as  large  as  can  be  found.  In  addition  to  this,  the 
fowls  shotdd  have  profuse  feathering,  with  as  much  down  as 
possible;  their  legs,  shanks,  and  toes  should  conform  to  the 
requirements  of  the  breed. 


606  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 


MISCELLANEOUS  BANTAMS 


ANDALUSIAN  BANTAM 

132.  Bantams  having  the  general  breed  characters  and 
the  color  and  markings  of  Andalusian  fowls  have  occasionally 
been  shown.  These  are  called  Andalusian  Bantam.  The 
origin  and  development  of  these  bantams  cannot  be  traced, 
They  may,  however,  be  produced  by  inbreeding  the  smallest 
Andalusian  fowls. 

ASEEL  BANTAM 

133.  The  Aseel  Bantam  has  been  mentioned  among  the 
varieties  seen  at  some  of  the  English  shows.  Bantams  of  this 
variety  conform  to  the  shape  and  color  of  the  Aseel  fowls, 
but  in  size  they  are  much  too  large  to  conform  to  the  weights 
that  would  be  natural  for  the  Aseel  Bantams.  They  are  said 
to  have  been  produced  by  crossing  Old-English  Game  Ban- 
tam hens  with  small  Aseel  males.  The  variety  colors  would 
naturally  conform  to  the  variety  colors  generally  found  in  the 
Aseel  Game  fowls. 

FRIZZLE  BANTAM 

134.  There  is  bred  at  the  present  time  a  variety  of  bantams 
having  feathers  like  the  Frizzle  fowl.  This  variety  is  called 
the  Frizzle  Bantam.  Just  how  the  Frizzle  Bantams  have 
been  produced  is  tmcertain.  It  is  claimed  that  some  of  the 
Frizzle  Bantams  that  came  from  Japan  were  crossed  or  mated 
with  some  Frizzle  fowls  of  small  size,  and  as  a  result  of  select- 
ing and  mating  the  smallest  and  the  best  of  the  offspring,  the 
Frizzle  Bantam  was  created.  Frizzle  Bantams  are  bred  in 
several  variety  colors — black,  buff,  red,  and  white.     The  most 


§  12  BANTAM  FOWLS  607 

attractiv^e  of  all  are  those  of  the  pure  white  variety.  In  form 
they  range  from  the  natural  shape  of  the  Frizzle  fowl  to  the 
Cochin  and  Brahma  Bantam. 


GERMAN  BANTAM 

135.  Several  varieties  of  bantams  are  bred  in  Germany, 
and  although  they  are  not,  as  yet,  generally  known,  they  are 
of  attractive  appearance  and  have  breed  characters  peculiar  to 
themselves.  In  general  make-up  the  German  Bantams  are 
more  like  the  Booted  than  other  varieties  of  bantams.  Some 
have  crests,  others  have  muffs,  and  the  greater  part  of  all 
have  shank  and  toe  feathering  like  the  Booted  Bantam.  Some 
have  vulture  hocks  without  shank  and  toe  feathering.  Most 
of  them  droop  their  wings  like  the  Sebright  Bantams.  All  of 
them  are  short  in  leg,  upright  in  carriage,  and  as  aristocratic 
in  their  bearing  as  are  the  Rose-Comb  Bantams. 


LANGSHAN  BANTAM 

136.  About  1890  some  black  bantams  were  shown  that 
were  a  fairly  good  imitation  of  Langshan  fowls.  The  variety 
is  known  as  Langshan  Bantams,  and  is  said  to  have  been 
made  by  selecting,  inbreeding,  and  reducing  in  size  from  Lang- 
shan fowls  to  Langshan  Bantams.  It  was  claimed  that  they 
descended  from  a  Langshan  hen  of  small  size.  They  had  the 
Langshan  type  to  a  limited  extent  and  beautiful  black  plumage. 


LEGHORN  BANTAM 

137.  Several  efforts  have  been  made  to  bring  into  public 
notice  bantams  that  are  a  fair  imitation  of  Leghorn  fowls. 
Among  the  best  of  these  were  the  Rose -Comb  Black  and  the 
Rose-Comb  White  Leghorn  Bantam.  The  bantams  of 
these  varieties  were  evidently  produced  by  mating  Rose-Comb 
Black  Leghorns  with  Black  Rose-Comb  Bantams  and  White 
Rose-Comb  Leghorns  with  White  Rose-Comb  Bantams.  But 
few  have  been  bred. 


608  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 


MINORCA  BANTAM 

138.  Bantams  that  were  a  poor  imitation  of  Minorca 
fowls  were  shown  some  years  ago.  Following  these,  some 
black   fowls    called   Rose -Comb    Black    Minorca   Bantam 

were  shown.  There  was  so  little  difference  between  them  and 
the  Rose-Comb  Black  Leghorn  Bantams  as  to  lead  to  the  con- 
clusion that  both  were  of  the  same  origin. 


NANKIN  BANTAM 

139.  Origin. — The  Nankin  Bantam  is  thought  to  be 
one  of  the  oldest  varieties,  if  not  the  oldest  variety,  of  bantam. 
In  what  place  or  from  what  source  the  bantams  of  this  variety 
originated  is  not  known. 

140.  Developraent. — Nankin  Bantams  have  never  been 
developed  to  any  extent.  They  have  largely  been  bred  pro- 
miscuously as  was  done  prior  to  the  introduction  of  other 
varieties. 

141.  History. — Nankin  Bantams  have  been  mentioned 
for  several  centuries.  They  were  used  as  a  part  of  the  base  from 
which  to  produce  bantams  of  many  kinds.  They  have  been 
referred  to  as  having  feathers  on  their  shanks,  and  also  as  hav- 
ing shanks  without  feathers.  As  part  of  the  foundation  blood 
for  making  variety  bantams,  they  have  been  most  useful. 

142.  Description. — The  Nankin  Bantams  are  small; 
their  plimiage  is  dark  cinnamon  color,  with  considerable  black 
in  the  flights;  the  tail  is  heavily  bronzed  with  dark  cinnamon 
color,  approaching  black.  In  some  instances,  the  shanks  are 
dark  yellow;  in  others,  of  a  bluish  cast.  Some  have  four  toes 
and  others  have  five. 

143.  Mating. — The  Nankin  Bantams  have  become  almost 
if  not  entirely  extinct,  and  are  not  likely  to  be  revived.  If 
some  could  be  foimd  and  mated,  and  their  offspring  selected 
and  remated,  they  might  be  revived  into  a  bantam  to  resemble 
the  Cochin,  the  Silky,  or  the  Booted  Bantam. 


12  BANTAM  FOWLS 


RUMPLESS  BANTAM 


144.  The  Rumpless  Bantam  has  been  made  by  nipping 
the  rump  from  bantam  chicks  as  soon  as  they  were  hatched. 
Rumpless  Bantams  can  be  made  from  Rtimpless  fowls  by 
selecting  the  smallest,  inbreeding,  selecting  the  offspring,  and 
rearing  the  chicks  during  the  winter  months. 


SCOTCH  GRAY  BANTAM 

145.  The  Scotcli  Gray  Bantam  has  the  size  and  shape 
of  the  Rose-Comb  Bantam,  with  plimiage  the  same  as  the 
Barred  Plymouth  Rock.  It  has  been  bred  and  shown  in  Eng- 
land as  the  Scotch  Gray  Bantam,  and  in  America  as  the  Barred 
Plymouth  Rock  Bantam.  The  bantams  of  this  variety  are 
said  to  have  been  made  by  selecting  the  smallest  Scotch  Gray 
males  and  mating  them  with  several  kinds  of  Cuckoo  Bantam 
females,  and  selecting  and  reducing  them  in  size  by  breeding 
from  small  offspring.  One  strain  is  said  to  have  been  pro- 
duced entirely  by  mating  a  beautifully  colored  Dominique 
Leghorn  male  with  a  very  small  Scotch  Gray  female,  and  per- 
fecting the  size,  color,  and  markings  by  careful  matings  of  the 
resulting  offspring. 

SPANISH  BANTAM 

146.  A  fairly  good  imitation  of  Spanish  fowls  of  bantam 
size  has  been  shown  as  Spanish.  Bantam.  None  of  them  are 
known  to  exist  at  the  present  time,  but  they  might  be  made  by 
selecting  small  Spanish  fowls,  mating  them  with  small  Leghorn 
fowls  of  the  same  color,  selecting  the  smallest  of  the  offspring, 
inbreeding,  hatching  late  in  the  fall,  and  rearing  the  chicks  out 
in  the  cold. 


610  BANTAM  FOWLS  §  12 


SULTAN  BANTAM 

147.  The  Sultan  Bantam  is  said  to  have  been  made  by 
mating  White  PoHsh  Bantams  with  White  Booted  Bantams, 
and  then  remating  the  smallest  of  the  female  offspring  with 
Sultan  males.  The  offspring  are  novel  in  appearance,  but  they 
have  never  been  bred  to  any  extent. 


YOKOHAMA  BANTAM 

148.  Some  exceptionally  small  Yokohama  fowls  have  been 
selected  and  inbred  until  very  small  offspring  have  been  pro- 
duced. These  have  been  shown  as  the  Yokohama  Bantam. 
A  few  have  been  seen  at  the  leading  shows  of  England,  but  up 
to  the  present  none  has  been  shown  in  America. 


FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT 
FAMILY 


VARIETIES  AND  HABITS 

1.  The  pheasant  family  of  fowls  is  a  group  of  fowls  of  the 
Gallinag  order  to  which  the  domestic  fowls  belong.  The 
family  includes,  in  addition  to  the  true  pheasants,  the  part- 
ridge, grouse,  quail,  turkey,  guinea  fowl,  peafowl,  and  a  nimiber 
of  others.  To  poultrymen,  the  most  important  differences 
between  the  fowls  of  the  pheasant  family  and  other  gallinaceous 
fowls  are  in  their  habits.  They  do  not  readily  lend  themselves 
to  domestication,  although  some  members  of  the  family,  the 
turkey  for  instance,  have  been  domesticated  to  the  extent  that 
they  can  be  raised  profitably.  When  bred  in  domestication, 
the  fowls  of  this  family  require  conditions  more  or  less  closely 
approaching  those  of  the  wild  fowls  of  the  same  kind.  They 
cannot  be  so  successfully  raised  in  close  confinement  as  the 
domestic  fowls.  The  turkey,  especially,  must  have  ample  range, 
where  the  soil  is  uncontaminated  and  where  it  can  pick  up  at 
least  a  part  of  its  subsistence.  Even  imder  such  conditions, 
domestic  turkeys  have  deteriorated  to  the  extent  that  many 
of  them  are  smaller  and  less  hardy  than  wild  turkeys.  The 
prairie  chicken  of  the  West,  the  grouse,  the  quail,  and  the 
various  birds  known  as  partridges  cannot  be  domesticated. 
However,  their  eggs  may  be  hatched  imder  a  hen  and  the  young 
enclosed  and  fed  in  a  coop.  In  this  condition,  they  may  be 
grown  to  matiuity,  but  the  wild  instinct  is  never  overcome  so 
that  they  can  be  liberated  in  the  poultry  yard.  At  the  first 
opportimity  they  escape  and  seek  their  native  environment. 

The  only  fowls  of  the  pheasant  family  that  will  be  discussed 
in  this  Section  are  the  turkey,  the  guinea  fowl,  and  the  peafowl. 

611 


612  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  S  13 


TURKEYS 


ORIGIN 


2.  The  originals  of  all  turkeys  were  native  to  America. 
The  North  Araerican  turkey  {Meleagns  americana),  the 
Mexican  turkey   {Meleagris  mexicana),  and  the  Honduras 

turkey  {Meleagris  ocellata)  are  all  well-known  wild  varieties 
that  still  exist.  It  is  thought  that  a  fourth  variety,  a  black 
tiirkey,  might  have  existed  in  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  and  that 
this  may  have  been  the  variety  discovered  by  the  Spanish 
explorers,  who  took  specimens  with  them  on  their  return  trips 
home.  Whether  or  not  this  is  true,  the  turkeys  first  found 
and  taken  from  America  to  Spanish  countries  were  darker  in 
plumage  than  any  of  the  existing  wild  varieties. 

The  North  American  turkeys  were  found  in  the  United  States 
from  Mexico  to  Canada,  also  through  the  southwestern  and 
eastern  states.  As  late  as  1873,  large  flocks  existed  in  the 
Middle  West.  An  unusually  large  flock  of  about  3,000  turkeys 
was  seen  in  Central  Iowa  during  the  fall  and  winter  of  1873. 
They  were  large  and  vigorous  and  their  plumage  was  as  rich 
and  beautiful  as  it  is  possible  to  have  in  this  variety.  Shortly 
after  this  date  they  began  to  disappear,  and  10  years  later  but 
a  few  could  be  found  in  the  same  locality. 

Mexican  turkeys  were  plentiful  below  latitude  35°,  and  the 
Honduras  turkeys  are  still  foimd  in  that  part  of  Central  America 
adjacent  to  Honduras. 

The  Honduras  tiirkey  has  not  been  successfully  bred  away 
from  its  native  heath.  Neither  has  it  reproduced  when  kept 
with  other  varieties.  The  North  American  and  Mexican 
varieties  have  been  prolific  with  all  varieties  of  domestic 
turkeys,  but  they  were  not  taken  to  Spain  until  many  years 
after  the  black  or  dark-plumaged  turkeys  that  were  first  taken. 


13  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  613 


VARIETIES  AND  THEIR  DEVELOPMENT 

3.  The  original  Norfolk  turkeys  of  England  were  black  and 
must  have  descended  from  the  black  turkeys  that  were  first 
taken  from  the  West  Indies  to  Spain  about  1518,  and  later 
to  England.  Subsequently,  Mexican  turkeys  were  taken  to 
England,  and  by  crossing  them  with  the  black  Norfolk  turkeys 
the  Cambridge  turkey  may  have  been  made.  Early  writers 
state  that  some  of  the  Cambridge  turkeys  were  gray,  some  were 
black,  and  some  were  white,  and  frequently  they  approached 
the  coloring  of  the  North  American  wild  variety.  Other 
writers  describe  them  as  varying  in  color,  being  gray,  pied 
black  and  white,  and  rusty  brown,  the  gray  being  the  most 
common.  This  would  indicate  that  gray  plumage  was  prev- 
alent in  the  Cambridge  turkeys.  This  color  would  come 
naturally  to  them  from  the  Mexican  variety. 

The  same  shade  of  plumage  existed  in  the  turkeys  that  were 
bred  in  France,  in  England,  and  in  their  near-by  colonies,  and 
the  Germans  bred  much  the  same  kind  of  turkeys.  When 
America  was  settled,  the  pioneers  brought  the  kind  of  turkeys 
that  were  bred  in  their  homes.  Some  were  taken  to  the  West 
Indies,  some  to  Mexico,  and  some  to  North  America,  where 
they  mingled  with  the  wild  varieties  of  the  localities,  and  in 
this  way  began  the  natural  crosses  from  which  the  Bronze  and 
Narragansett  turkeys  were  made.  Later,  both  North  American 
wild  and  Bronze  turkeys  were  carried  into  England,  and  from 
them  the  Cambridge  Bronze  turkey  was  made. 

It  has  been  clairned  that  white  turkeys  intermingled  with 
wild  turkeys  of  Kentucky,  and  that  from  such  crosses  the 
Bourbon  Red  turkeys  have  descended.  Buff  turkeys  were 
probably  made  from  crossing  white  and  other  varieties.  Of 
whatever  variety  color  turkeys  may  be,  all  have  descended 
from  the  original  wild  varieties  found  in  America. 

4.  The  remarkable  attractiveness  of  the  American  turkey 
is  fully  proved  from  the  fact  that  in  less  than  25  years  after  the 
discovery  of  America  it  was  in  use  on  the  table  of  the  royalty 
of  Spain.     The  preference  of  the  turkey  as  a  beautiful  bird  is 


614  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  §  13 

mentioned  by  Martin  Doyle,  who  says  that,  according  to 
Norfolk  tradition,  an  ancestor  of  Sir  George  Strickland,  Bart., 
first  brought  it  into  England;  as  a  proof  of  this  statement, 
the  crest  of  the  Strickland  family,  given  by  Edward  VI  about 
1550,  is  a  turkey  cock.  Edward  Brown,  of  England,  quotes  the 
fact  that  the  first  turkey  was  eaten  in  France  at  the  wedding 
feast  of  Charles  IX  and  Elizabeth  of  Austria.  A  number  of 
turkeys  had  been  sent  from  Boston  to  St.  Malo,  and  when  the 
ship  reached  that  port  the  provincial  governor  despatched  a 
dozen  to  the  chef  of  the  king's  kitchen.  These  were  stiiifed  and 
served.  Charles  IX  was  so  pleased  with  them  that  he  began 
to  breed  turkeys  in  the  forests  of  St.  Germain.  From  that 
time  to  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century,  turkeys  were  kept 
in  all  parts  of  the  world  for  table  purposes  only.  Following 
this,  more  attention  was  given  to  their  selection,  and  about 
1850  the  people  of  America  began  to  breed  them  more  care- 
fully for  the  separation  of  plumage  color ;  and  from  then  to  the 
present  time  marked  attention  has  been  given  to  the  careful 
breeding  of  the  several  varieties,  none  of  which,  however,  has 
ever  equaled  the  popularity  of  the  Bronze  turkey. 

5.  The  wanton  destruction  of  wild  turkeys  throughout 
North  America  almost  annihilated  the  race,  and  the  careless 
inbreeding  of  domestic  turkeys  so  destroyed  their  vitality  as 
to  open  the  way  for  their  speedy  destruction  through  a  dis- 
ease called  blackhead.  The  alarm  was  sounded  against  such 
destruction  when  it  was  too  late  to  save  them  in  their  wild  state. 
Some  landowners  in  Virginia  and  Pennsylvania  restricted  their 
estates  for  the  protection  of  the  few  turkeys  that  were  left  in 
that  locality.  The  introduction  into  the  domestic  turkeys  of 
new  blood  from  the  few  remaining  wild  turkeys  started  a  revi- 
ving influence.  In  addition  to  this,  turkey  breeders  who  had 
given  special  attention  to  variety  colors  began  the  strengthen- 
ing of  their  flocks  by  culling  the  weakling  females  and  by  the 
use  of  wild  males.  Although  the  domestic  turkeys  still  lack 
their  original  vitality,  so  much  has  thus  been  accomplished 
as  to  warrant  the  statement  that  their  original  vigor  can  be 
restored.     England,  France,  Belgium,  and  other  countries  have 


§  13  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  615 

joined  in  the  work  of  improving  their  reproducing  qualities  and 
in  strengthening  their  vitality.  In  addition  to  this,  an  effort 
has  been  made  to  improve  their  domestication,  until  at  the 
present  time  it  is  possible  to  keep,  breed,  and  rear  turkeys  in 
closer  confinement  than  formerly. 

6.  Turkeys  were  described,  but  were  not  mentioned  by 
variety  names,  in  the  original  Standard  that  was  compiled 
in  England  in  1865.  Bronze  turkeys  were  described  in  the 
American  Standard  of  1867,  and  in  the  Standard  of  1874, 
the  Black,  Bronze,  Buff,  Narragansett,  and  Slate  turkeys 
were  described;  the  White  turkey  was  added  to  the  Standard 
in  1875.  This  should  prove  that  the  variety  colors  of  turkeys 
were  well  established  before  they  were  considered  as  standard 
varieties  bred  for  exhibition. 

The  turkeys  mentioned  in  the  Standard  of  1875  have  all 
been  developed  into  varieties  worthy  of  the  name  given  them. 
The  work  of  developing  them  has  been  accomplished  almost 
entirely  in  America.  The  fanciers  of  England  have  made  the 
Norfolk,  or  Black,  turkey  and  the  Cambridge  Bronze  turkey; 
the  poultrymen  of  Belgiimi  have  made  the  Ronquieres  turkey. 
But  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the  development  of  tur- 
keys in  Spain  and  Italy.  In  these  countries,  the  turkeys  are 
small,  have  dark  plumage,  are  regularly  colored,  and  of  remark- 
ably good  quality  as  table  poultry.  The  best  of  the  Eiu-opean 
breeds  that  reach  the  London  markets  are  said  to  come  from 
Normandy,  and  some  of  fairly  good  quality  are  sent  from 
Russia.  All  of  the  Continental  turkeys  that  reach  the  London 
market,  with  the  exception  of  those  from  Normandy,  are  of  the 
same  type  as  the  Italian  tiu-keys. 

In  England,  the  Black,  the  Bronze,  and  the  White  turkeys 
are  considered  as  true  varieties,  and  the  others  are  accepted 
as  subvarieties  that  would  naturally  be  expected  to  come  as 
sports  from  these  varieties  as  a  resiilt  of  promiscuous  breeding. 
In  America,  seven  varieties  are  described  as  standard;  the 
Black,  Bronze,  and  White  turkeys  are  the  favorites. 


616  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  §  13 


BREEDING  OF  TURKEYS 

7.  Turkeys  were  formerly  kept  in  a  semiwild  state,  and 
this  practice  is  still  followed  in  many  localities.  From  Missouri 
to  California  and  as  far  south  as  Texas,  large  numbers  are 
bred,  and  most  of  the  breeders  permit  their  turkeys  to  roam 
at  will  diiring  the  day,  encoiuraging  them  to  return  at  night  and 
to  roost  in  the  open  or  partly  open  sheds,  on  outdoor  roosts, 
or  in  trees  near  the  bams  and  poultry  houses.  When  this 
method  is  followed,  breeding  can  be  controlled  to  a  certain 
extent  by  having  only  the  best  grade  of  females,  selected  for 
their  size,  health,  and  vigor.  Strong,  healthy  females  2  or  3 
years  old  are  best  for  use  in  such  flocks.  Such  females  mated 
with  wild  or  half -wild  males  have  produced  offspring  from 
which  strains  of  the  Bronze  turkey  have  been  renewed  or  estab- 
lished. Females  bred  in  this  way  have  reached  a  weight  of 
34  pounds,  and  males  from  40  to  48  poimds.  These  extreme 
sizes  are  not  best  for  breeding  purposes,  but  such  proportions 
prove  that  they  can  be  brought  back  to  their  original  size, 
health,  and  vigor.  In  Belgium,  in  France,  and  in  England 
they  are  more  closely  confined  than  in  America. 

Pedigree  breeding  may  be  carried  on  with  such  certainty  as 
to  enable  the  breeders  to  select  the  offspring  from  each  female, 
as  well  as  to  know  the  sire  of  each  offspring.  Pens  for  pedigree 
breeding  of  turkeys  are  shown  in  Fig.  1  on  a  |-acre  tract. 
The  females  are  confined  together  in  the  large  enclosiure  at  the 
right,  and  a  nest  for  each  is  hidden  beneath  the  growing  shrub- 
bery or  luider  branches  cut  from  pine  trees.  A  box  or  frame  of 
reasonable  size  is  either  slipped  under  the  shrubbery  or  covered 
with  pine  branches.  Occasionally  two  hens  will  lay  under  the 
same  shelter.  Usually,  when  this  occurs,  each  hen  will  make  her 
own  nest,  and,  by  watching  them,  the  breeder  will  avoid 
confusion  in  gathering  the  eggs.  The  eggs  from  each  hen 
should  be  marked  and  female  chickens  used  to  hatch  them. 
Large  Brahma  hens  can  cover  from  5  to  7  eggs,  Plymouth  Rock 
hens  from  4  to  6  eggs.  One  or  two  turkey  hens  should  be  set 
at  the  same  time,  usually  each  on  her  own  eggs,  and  when  the 
poults  are  hatched,  they  should  be  toe-marked,  and  all  that  are 


.  '^?; 


617 


618  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  §  13 

hatched  by  hens  and  by  turkeys  shoiild  be  given  to  the  tiirkey 
hens  to  brood. 

The  small  yard  on  the  left  is  for  one  of  the  male  turkeys 
used  for  breeding  purposes.  In  the  rear  of  the  small  yard  are 
two  larger  j^ards  for  confining  one  or  more  male  turkeys.  In 
addition  to  these  special  pens,  other  flocks  of  five  females  and 
one  male  can  be  confined  in  an  orchard  enclosure  divided  into 
two  pens,  each  surrounded  with  an  8-foot  fence.  In  this  way, 
five  hens  in  each  pen  can  be  successfiilly  mated  with  males 
selected  for  their  size,  strength,  and  freedom  from  disease. 
In  the  special  pens,  shown  in  the  large  enclosure,  individual 
or  pair  matings  are  practiced,  and  from  such  careful  matings 
many  of  the  finest  turkeys  are  produced. 

The  color  illustration  of  the  pair  of  Bronze  turkeys  was 
painted  from  life.  These  tiu"keys  were  said  to  be  the  best 
of  their  kind.  The  male  was  7  years  old  when  the  illustration 
was  made,  and  the  female  was  in  her  fourth  year.  Only  a 
few  days  before  the  sketch  was  made  the  male  had  been  brought 
back  from  Kentucky,  where  he  had  been  sent  to  gain  the 
advantages  of  the  environments  of  that  locality  and  to  be  bred 
with  a  flock  of  females  that  were  half  wild  and  half  Bronze. 
From  this  change  of  cHmate,  the  vigor  of  the  male  was  strength- 
ened and  the  turkey  crop  of  the  locality  where  he  wintered  was 
greatly  improved. 

8.  A  Method  of  Mating  Turkeys. — In  one  method  of 
mating  turkeys,  each  male  is  kept  by  himself  in  a  small  yard 
next  to  a  main  enclosure  in  which  the  females  are  confined. 
The  males  will  strut  up  and  down  in  their  yards  and  call  to  the 
hens.  They,  however,  until  they  feel  disposed  to  mate,  will 
take  but  httle  notice  of  the  toms.  At  such  times,  a  hen  turkey 
will  come  close  to  the  fence  that  separates  her  from  a  male, 
squat,  spread  her  wings,  and  call  to  the  male.  After  she  has 
done  this  several  times,  the  male  selected  for  pairing  with  her 
is  driven  into  the  enclosure  where  the  female  is  confined,  and 
the  two  are  watched  until  copulation  has  taken  place.  To  cop- 
ulate with  a  hen,  the  male  turkey  hops  up  on  her  back,  tramps 
with  his  feet  and  beats  with  his  wings  until  she  lifts  her  tail. 


§  13  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  619 

When  she  does  this,  complete  service  is  given.  The  whole 
operation  may  take  5  minutes  or  it  may  be  finished  in  half 
a  minute.  When  the  operation  is  prolonged  there  is  danger  of 
the  female  getting  over  on  her  side.  For  her  safety,  in  such  cases 
the  tom  should  be  pushed  off.  Sometimes  the  position  of  the 
torn  prevents  the  female  from  lifting  her  tail,  and  no  matter 
how  long  he  stays  on  her,  copulation  is  impossible.  Old  toms 
are  more  likely  than  young  ones  to  lacerate  the  back  and  sides 
of  the  female. 

As  soon  as  service  has  been  completed,  the  tom  must  be 
returned  to  his  enclostu-e;  otherwise  he  will  return  to  the 
female  and  tramp  the  flesh  from  her  back  and  sides  in  an  attempt 
to  renew  intercoiu-se  with  her.  One  copulation  is  usually 
sufficient  for  a  hen  turkey,  and  she  may  not  permit  another. 
If,  however,  the  female  continues  to  solicit  the  attentions  of 
the  male,  the  tom  may  be  returned  to  her  for  a  second  service. 
One  satisfactory  service  from  the  male  will  ordinarily  fertilize 
all  the  eggs  for  that  period  of  laying  up  to  the  time  the  female 
becomes  broody,  yet  some  hens  will  accept  frequent  copula- 
tions from  the  male.  If  a  tiirkey  hen  is  not  permitted  to  sit 
after  she  has  laid  her  clutch  of  eggs  and  becomes  broody,  she 
must  be  again  served  by  the  male  in  order  to  have  her  next 
clutch  of  eggs  fertile.  

BLACK  TURKEY 

9.  Origin. — The  Black  turkey  was  the  first  of  the 
domestic  varieties  of  turkey,  and  was  originally  known  as  the 
Norfolk  turkey.  It  was  brought  to  America  by  the  early 
settlers,  and  has  since  been  bred  as  a  distinct  variety. 

10.  DeveloprQent. — The  Black  turkey  was  first  developed 
about  Norfolk,  England.  It  was  brought  to  America  where  it 
was  bred  in  small  numbers,  but  was  soon  almost  lost  sight  of 
through  intermingling  with  the  wild  variety.  Later,  the  Black 
turkeys  were  separated  and  were  improved  in  size  by  being 
bred  with  dark-colored  offspring  of  Bronze  turkeys.  Turkeys 
of  this  variety,  when  fat,  had  the  peculiarity  of  yellow  skin, 
and  for  this  reason  they  were  much  admired- 


620  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  §  13 

11.  History. — The  early  history  of  the  Black  turkey  has 
been  told  in  the  origin  and  history  of  all  turkeys.  During  the 
earlier  existence  of  these  turkeys  in  America,  they  were  neglected 
and  became  small  and  undersized.  A  few  breeders  brought 
them  forward  by  selecting  the  largest  specimens  and  mating 
them  with  very  dark  offspring  of  Bronze  turkeys.  They  have 
been  greatly  improved,  but  interest  in  them  has  not  increased  as 
it  should.  They  are  excellent  for  market  purposes  from  the  fact 
that  they  are  very  tame  and  mature  early  into  marketable  sizes. 

12.  Description. — The  Black  turkey  is  of  medium 
size.  Mature  males  weigh  27  pounds;  young  males  and  hens, 
18  pounds;  and  females  less  than  a  year  old,  12  pounds.  The 
Black,  Buff,  and  Slate  turkeys  are  of  the  same  Standard 
weights,  but  the  Bronze  turkey  is  many  pounds  heavier.  In 
color,  the  beak,  shanks,  and  toes  of  the  Black  turkey  are  dark 
or  slaty  black;  the  head  is  red;  the  eyes  are  dark;  and  the 
plumage  is  lustrous  black  throughout.  When  fat,  the  skin 
is  yellower  than  in  any  other  variety. 

13.  Mating. — In  selecting  Black  turkeys  for  the  pro- 
duction of  exhibition  offspring,  hens  in  their  second  or  third 
year,  which  weigh  from  16  to  18  pounds,  should  be  mated  to 
young  males  that  weigh  in  their  first  year  from  16  to  18  pounds 
and  in  their  second  year  from  25  to  28  pounds.  AJl  should 
have  full,  round,  plump,  and  heavy  body  formation,  and 
beautiful  black  plumage  throughout,  with  a  brilliant  luster  of 
green  sheen.  

BOURBON  RED  TURKEY 

14.  Origin. — It    is    thought    that    the    Bourbon    Red 

turkey  originated  in  Kentucky  through  the  promiscuous 
breeding  of  the  wild  variety  that  is  found  in  the  mountains  of 
Kentucky  with  turkeys  of  the  white  variety.  Some  claim  that 
they  were  an  original  buff  variety  that  is  indigenous  to  the 
mountains  of  Kentucky.  Naturalists  believe  that  all  buff, 
brown,  or  reddish-brown  turkeys  have  come  from  the  inter- 
mingling of  a  wild  variety  with  the  domestic  White  turkeys 
and  the  Bourbon  Red  may  have  come  from  such  crosses, 


§  13  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  621 

15.  Development. — Bourbon  Red  turkeys  were  bred  in 
small  numbers  in  a  few  localities  until  they  were  taken  up  and 
bred  in  opposition  to  the  Buff  turkey.  They  were  also  used  to 
improve  the  size  and  vigor  of  the  Buff  turkey.  Their  unusual 
vigor  attracted  attention  and  they  were  separated  and  developed 
into  their  present  type. 

16.  History. — Bourbon  Red  turkeys  were  first  bred  in 
Kentucky  and  were  distributed  from  there  into  Ohio  and  other 
localities.  Their  valuable  qualities  were  brought  into  public 
notice  and  they  were  admitted  to  the  American  Standard  in 
1910  as  a  variety  likely  to  supersede  the  Buff  turkey. 

17.  Description. — As  described  in  the  American  Stand- 
ard, the  Bourbon  Red  turkey  shoiild  have  head,  beak,  eyes, 
and  neck  the  same  as  other  turkeys;  the  body  plumage 
should  be  dark  brownish  red;  the  wing  feathers  and  tail  almost 
white;  the  shanks  and  toes  are  described  as  reddish  pink. 
They  are  large  turkeys  with  cinnamon  pltimage,  many  of  them 
being  marked  with  black  lines  near  the  point  of  the  feathers. 
Their  plimiage  is  more  or  less  intermingled  with  white,  and 
their  shanks  and  toes  are  reddish  brown,  shading  into  yellow. 
Their  plumage  color  is  such  as  would  be  expected  to  result 
naturally  from  crossing  the  Buff  and  the  Bronze  tiu-keys 
and  selecting  for  and  breeding  from  offspring  with  dark-red 
or  cinnamon-colored  pltunage.  They  are  not  true  in  color 
and  markings  of  plumage,  neither  do  they  conform  to  the 
Standard  color  description. 

18.  Mating. — The  only  rule  of  mating  that  can  be  applied 
to  Bourbon  Red  turkeys  is  to  select  those  conforming  to  the 
Standard  description  and  to  mate  and  remate  them  continually 
until  a  strain  has  been  established  that  will  produce  offspring 
approaching  perfection.  The  greatest  value  from  this  variety 
will  be  derived  from  crossing  it  into  other  varieties  to  strengthen 
vitality  stifficiently  for  producing  ttirkeys  for  market  purposes. 


622  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  §  13 

BRONZE  TURKEY 

19.  Origin. — The  Bronze  turkey  has  been  made  by 
crossing  the  wild  North  American  turkey  with  the  Black  turkey 
and  by  selecting  and  breeding  the  offspring  thus  obtained  and 
recrossing  them  with  the  wild  variety. 

20.  Development. — The  Bronze  turkey  has  been  devel- 
oped by  similar  methods  in  America  and  England.  In  America, 
the  Bronze  turkey  was  made  and  developed,  and  in  England 
the  Cambridge  was  changed  into  the  Cambridge  Bronze  by 
crossing  the  original  Cambridge  variety  with  the  American 
Bronze.  Owing  to  this  development,  the  Bronze  turkey  is 
the  same  throughout  the  world. 

21.  History. — In  his  earliest  writings,  Audubon  men- 
tioned the  fact  that  the  wild  turkeys  of  North  America  woiild 
come  from  their  haunts  to  the  farms  and  feed  and  mate  with  the 
domestic  turkeys.  Such  matings  produced  turkeys  with 
plumage  that  was  almost  as  rich  in  color  and  markings  as  that 
of  the  wild  variety. 

The  most  probable  theory  of  the  beginning  of  the  Bronze 
turkey  is  that  the  few  domestic  tiu-keys  that  were  brought 
from  other  lands  to  America  mingled  with  the  North  American 
wild  ttirkey,  and  that  from  such  matings  the  Bronze  turkey 
was  established.  Farmers  living  in  Central  Iowa  in  1869 
killed  aU  their  male  turkeys  and  depended  entirely  on  the 
wild  variety  to  come  into  the  barnyards  and  mate  with  the 
turkey  hens.  Size  and  quality  were  so  much  improved  in  this 
way  as  to  attract  the  attention  of  others,  and  it  is  reasonable 
to  suppose  that  like  matings  occurred  in  other  localities.  In 
this  way  the  domestic  turkeys  of  North  America  were  trans- 
formed into. the  most  vigorous  and  the  most  prolific  of  aU 
turkeys. 

22.  Description. — The  Bronze  turkey  has  the  same 
general  shape  or  formation  as  all  turkeys,  which  is  exemplified 
in  the  color  illustrations.  The  head  is  long  and  of  peciiliar 
formation,  being  bare  of  feathers  well  down  the  neck  of  the 
male,  but  showing  a  rough,  uneven  growth  of  lumps,  called 


§  13  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  623 

caruncles.  A  similar  but  less  conspicuous  growth  occurs 
on  the  females.  Instead  of  a  comb,  male  turkeys  have  a  small, 
round  growth  on  the  top  of  the  head.  This  growth  enlarges 
to  many  times  its  natural  size  when  the  turkeys  strut;  at  the 
same  time  the  head  and  face  assiune  a  red  or  reddish-purple 
hue,  and  the  growth  down  the  throat  and  down  the  neck 
becomes  enlarged.  But  little  of  this  is  seen  in  the  female 
turkey.  The  neck  is  well  curved  in  the  male,  which  carries 
the  head  upright  and  arrogantly;  the  female  shows  less  of 
this.  The  breast  is  round,  broad,  and  deep  from  the  throat 
down  under  the  breastbone  to  the  thighs,  and  along  from  the 
point  of  the  breast  to  the  rear  of  the  abdomen;  the  back  is 
broad  and  long,  with  the  tail  carried  in  a  direct  line  with  the 
back.  When  standing  erect  in  a  natural  position,  there  is  a 
regular  incline  from  the  base  of  the  neck  to  the  tip  of  the  tail. 
The  shanks  should  be  strong  and  set  well  apart ;  the  toes,  strong. 
The  greater  the  width  between  the  thighs,  the  more  vigorous 
the  turkeys  will  be.  The  body  formation  should  be  round, 
deep,  broad,  and  full.  A  tuft  of  hair  called  a  beard  grows 
from  the  breast  of  the  males  after  they  are  9  months  old. 
Such  growth  may  appear  on  the  breast  of  females  after  they 
are  a  year  old. 

The  weight  of  the  Bronze  turkeys  is,  for  adult  males,  36  to 
40  poimds;  for  young  males,  33  to  35  pounds;  for  males  less 
than  a  year  old,  about  25  pounds;  for  hens,  20  pounds;  for 
hens  less  than  a  year  old,  16  pounds.  Although  such  weights 
are  standard  for  this  variety,  it  is  not  unusual  for  turkeys  to 
weigh  even  more. 

The  head  of  both  sexes  of  turkeys  of  all  varieties  is  a  rich 
red,  and  the  red  extends  well  down  on  the  neck  of  the  male. 
The  beak,  shanks,  and  toes  of  the  Bronze  turkey  are  dark; 
as  it  grows  older,  its  shanks  and  toes  change  and  become 
brightened  with  pink  or  red.  The  plumage  of  the  male  is 
black,  embellished  with  bronze  sheen,  each  feather  having 
a  black  bar  across  the  tip  and  the  end  fringed  with  white. 
The  females  have  more  white  in  their  plimiage,  thus  giving 
them  a  lighter  appearance.  They  are  well  described  as  having 
a  surface  color  of  black,  brilliantly  shaded  with  bronze  and 


624  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  §  13 

glistening  green  sheen,  the  richness  of  which  is  exceeded  only 
by  that  of  the  North  American  wild  turkey. 

23.  Mating. — ^Females  that  average  16  pounds  or  more, 
that  are  more  than  a  year  old,  and  that  have  every  feature 
required  by  the  Standard  description  should  be  mated  with 
males  that  have  every  feature  that  is  most  desirable  in  the 
Bronze  turkey.  All  turkeys  used  for  breeding  should  have  a 
good  length  of  breast  and  body;  they  should  measure  well 
around  the  breast,  back,  and  body,  just  forwards  of  the  thighs, 
which  should  be  set  well  apart.  They  vshould  be  prominent 
in  the  breast  and  have  beautiftil  plumage. 

Too  much  encouragement  has  been  given  to  length  of  shanks 
and  legs  in  the  Bronze  turkey.  The  breeding  turkeys  should 
have  shorter  legs  than  are  common  in  this  variety.  Shanks, 
toes,  and  excessive  length  of  leg  add  considerably  to  the  waste 
product,  which  lessens  their  value  as  market  poultry. 


BUFF  TURKEY 

24.  Origin. — The  origin  of  the  Buff  turkey  cannot  be 
definitely  traced.  Turkeys  of  this  color  have  appeared  in 
every  locality  where  turkeys  have  been  grown.  The  French 
call  them  Chocolate;  the  English,  Buff  or  Fawn;  and  in  the 
American  Standard  they  are  described  as  Buif  turkeys.  Buff 
and  cinnamon  color,  either  or  both,  is  apt  to  appear  in  flocks 
where  Bronze  and  White  turkeys  intermingle.  Both  the  Btiff 
and  the  Bourbon  Red  turkey  probably  had  about  the  same 
origin.  Evidence  of  the  uncertainty  in  color  of  the  Buff  turkey 
is  shown  in  the  fact  that  specimens  with  clean,  clear  plumage 
free  from  black,  white,  or  other  foreign  color  are  rare. 

25.  Development. — Buff  turkeys  have  never  been  devel- 
oped to  a  condition  in  which  they  can  be  depended  on  to 
produce  offspring  having  a  clean,  clear  shade  of  color  that 
might  be  termed  buff,  fawn,  or  chocolate  color.  A  few  fairly 
good  ones  have  been  produced  from  time  to  time,  but  they  have 
received  so  little  attention  that  they  have  never  been  finished 
into  a  perfect  variety. 


§  13  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  625 

26.  History. — Buff  or  red  turkeys  have  been  mentioned 
occasionally  since  the  beginning  of  the  domestication  of  turkeys. 
In  Pennsylvania,  they  were  known  as  the  Tuscarawa  Reds. 
Moubray  mentions  turkeys  that  had  plumage  of  a  Hght  btiff 
or  delicate  fawn  color  and  were  exceedingly  neat  and  Quaker- 
like in  appearance  when  the  shade  was  imbroken,  but  it  was 
sometimes  mixed  with  white.  He  also  mentions  a  variety 
known  as  Copper  or  as  Dutch  Red,  some  of  the  darker  shades 
of  which  were  called  Cinnamon.  He  mentioned  another 
variety  that  had  dark  brownish-red  pltmiage,  the  webs  of 
the  feathers  being  penciled  and  tipped  with  a  darker  olive 
brown  or  rusty  black. 

These  descriptions  seem  to  refer  to  turkeys  having  plumage 
color  like  the  Buff  or  the  Bourbon  Red.  Moubray  also  mentions 
the  fact  that  they  were  foimd  in  Holland  and  in  several  local- 
ities of  England. 

27.  Description. — Buff  turkeys  are  described  in  the 
American  Standard  as  having  a  body  formation  and  a  general 
make-up  the  same  as  other  tirrkeys,  the  main  difference  being 
that  the  shanks  and  the  toes  of  the  turkeys  of  this  variety  are 
bluish  white  or  flesh  colored.  The  plumage  is  buff  colored 
throughout,  the  wings  and  tail  shaded  with  a  lighter  color. 
They  range  in  plumage  from  a  light  fawn  to  a  cinnamon  brown 
more  or  less  broken  with  white  in  wings  and  tail. 

28.  Mating. — In  mating  Buff  turkeys,  large  hens  having 
a  pluniage  color  as  perfect  as  can  be  selected  shoiild  be  mated 
with  males  as  nearly  perfect  in  breed  characters  and  plumage 
color  as  can  be  found.  To  strengthen  vitality,  increase  size, 
and  improve  plumage  color,  the  finest  colored  Bourbon  Red 
females  mated  with  the  best  Buff  males  will  produce  offspring 
that  may  safely  be  bred  with  the  Buff  turkeys. 


626  FOWLS  OP  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  §  13 


CAMBRIDGE  TURKEY 

29.  The  original  Cambridge  turkey  was  more  like  the 
Narragansett  than  any  other  turkey.  The  Cambridge  turkeys 
were  large  and  prohfic  and  were  made,  perhaps,  by  inter- 
mingling the  Mexican  wild  turkeys  and  the  Norfolk  turkeys, 
of  England.  They  were  popular  in  England  for  many  years 
and  were  the  choicest  turkeys  bred  in  England  and  other 
near-by  cotmtries. 

When  American  Bronze  turkeys  were  introduced  into  Eng- 
land, they  were  bred  with  Cambridge  turkeys,  and  this  inter- 
mingling of  the  Bronze  with  the  Cambridge  was  continued 
until  the  Cambridge  turkey  was  transformed  into  the  Cam- 
bridge Bronze.  It  is  now  described  in  the  English  Standard 
as  the  Bronze  turkey,  and  the  description  in  the  English  Standard 
conforms  with  the  description  of  the  Bronze  turkey  in  the 
American  Standard.  In  fact.  Bronze  turkeys  are  now  identical 
in  England  and  America.     

NARRAGANSETT  TURKEY 

30.  Origin. — ^Although  it  is  evident  that  the  Narragan- 
sett turkey  originated  in  Rhode  Island,  there  is  no  trustworthy 
information  concerning  its  origin.  Som.e  claim  that  these 
turkeys  were  made  by  crossing  Cambridge  and  Black  turkeys; 
others  affirm  that  they  occurred  nattiraUy  as  offspring  from 
several  kinds  bred  in  that  locality;  and  still  others  state  that 
they  came  from  crossing  Black  tiu-keys  with  turkeys  from 
Mexico.  It  has  also  been  claimed  that  they  have  been  made 
by  crossing  Mexican  wild  turkeys  with  light-colored  Bronze 
females.  A  natural  conclusion  would  be  that  they  had  been 
made  by  crossing  turkeys  having  a  mixture  of  gray  in  their 
plumage  with  Mexican  wild  turkeys.  This  conclusion  is 
supported  by  the  fact  that  the  Mexican  wild  turkeys  had 
white  markings  in  the  back  and  body,  and  tail  feathers.  Such 
turkeys  crossed  with  the  lightest  colored  Bronze  females  would 
natiirally  produce  offspring  marked  like  the  Narragansetts. 

Turkeys  having  gray  plumage  have  been  seen  in  every 
locality  where  turkeys  have  been  grown.     Moubray  mentions 


!W/, 


§  13  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  627 

them  as  the  bustard  variety.  They  were  formerly  plentiful 
in  Ireland,  in  the  German  provinces,  and  in  parts  of  France. 
They  have  never  been  considered  as  a  separate  variety,  and 
they  are  more  like  badly  marked  light-colored  Narragansetts 
than  those  of  any  other  variety.  Turkeys  are  frequently 
offered  for  sale  in  the  markets  that  have  plttmage  that  might 
be  described  as  gray,  grayish  black,  or  grizzled  slate. 

31.  Development. — Narragansett  turkeys  were  devel- 
oped in  that  portion  of  Rhode  Island  adjacent  to  Newport 
and  Narragansett  Bay.  They  were  bred  also  in  several  parts 
of  New  England  and  in  Central  Ohio.  During  recent  years, 
the  best  specimens  have  been  bred  in  the  western  part  of 
Rhode  Island  and  about  New  London,  Ohio. 

32.  History. — Narragansett  turkeys  might  be  called  a 
local  product,  as  they  have  never  been  generally  distributed 
throughout  the  United  States,  and  but  few  if  any  have  ever 
been  seen  in  England.  At  one  time  they  were  considered 
the  best  turkeys  for  market  purposes,  and  much  of  the  repu- 
tation gained  for  Rhode  Island  turkeys  was  established  through 
them.  Following  the  persistent  claim  of  unusual  value  for 
the  Bronze  turkeys,  the  Narragansett  was  neglected.  Turkeys 
of  no  other  variety  are  superior  to  them  for  any  purpose. 

33.  Description. — ^The  Narragansett  turkey  bears  the 
same  relation  to  the  Bronze  turkey  as  the  Wyandotte  bears 
to  the  Plymouth  Rock.  The  Narragansett  is  a  close,  compactly 
built  turkey  as  compared  with  the  larger  and  more  lengthy 
formation  of  the  Bronze  turkey.  The  Mexican  wild  turkey, 
from  which  they  are  thought  to  have  come,  is  shorter  in  body, 
thighs,  and  shanks,  and  more  compactly  built  than  the  North 
American  wild  turkey.  The  color  and  markings  of  the  Narra- 
gansett are  described  in  the  Standard  as  black,  dull  black, 
and  metallic  black.  The  most  beautiful  coloring  is  the  rich, 
metallic  black  ground  color,  emblazoned  with  bronze  and  plainly 
marked  at  the  ends  of  the  feathers  with  a  light  shade  of  gray, 
verging  on  white.  The  color  illustration  of  them  was  made 
from  life  and  shows  the  distinctive  color  and  markings  of  the 
best  exhibition  specimens  of  this  variety. 


628  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  §  13 

34.  Mating. — In  selecting  Narragansett  turkeys  from 
which  to  breed  offspring  for  exhibition,  the  main  features  for 
careful  consideration  are  correct  body  formation  and  proper 
size,  which  should  not  be  less  than  16  pounds  for  old  hens; 
pullets,  if  used,  should  weigh  12  pounds;  males,  from  18  to 
25  pounds,  according  to  their  age.  These  weights  are  for 
turkeys  in  good  condition  for  breeding  and  not  fattened  for 
market.  Color  and  markings  should  be  carefully  selected 
to  conform  to  Standard  description.  At  the  present  time 
no  better  guide  can  be  followed  than  to  have  them  as  nearly 
as  possible  like  the  turkeys  in  the  color  illustration.  After 
a  strain  has  been  established,  they  can  be  selected  for  improve- 
ment in  body  formation  and  plumage  color.  A  strain  must 
first  be  established  that  will  breed  true  to  form  and  color, 
and  special  attention  should  be  given  to  maintaining  and 
improving  the  plump,  compact  body  formation  and  preserving 
the  low-set  carriage  natural  to  them. 


RONQUIERES  TURKEY 

35.  Origin. — Edward  Brown,  of  England,  gives  it  as  his 
opinion  that  the  Ronquieres  turkey,  which  originated  in 
Belgium,  was  made  by  intermingling  black  turkeys  from 
France  with  gray  and  white  turkeys,  and  crossing  the  offspring 
with  Bronze  turkeys. 

36.  Development. — The  Ronquieres  turkej^s  have  been 
developed  in  Belgiimi  with  the  end  in  view  of  having  the  greatest 
amount  of  meat  and  the  least  amount  of  offal,  of  having  them 
with  short  extremities  and  the  body  lengthened  along  the 
breast  line,  and  also  of  having  them  of  a  body  formation  that 
will  respond  quickly  to  the  process  of  fattening  so  extensively 
followed  in  that  locality. 

37.  History. — For  many  years  Ronquieres  turkeys  were 
bred  without  consideration  for  form  or  color,  the  purpose  being 
to  produce  the  best  market  poultry.  Recently,  they  have  been 
bred  to  a  more  uniform  shape  and  color.  They  have  not  been 
brought  to  America. 


§  13  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  629 

38.  Description. — Ronqtderes  turkeys  have  the  same 
general  formation  as  other  ttirkeys.  In  color,  the  males  range 
from  dark  gray  to  yellow  and  black,  some  having  feathers 
penciled  with  fine,  black,  crescent-shaped  lines  bordered  with 
a  brilliant  black  bar;  others  have  the  ends  and  edges  of  the 
feathers  marked  with  Hght  gray  or  white.  The  females  are 
irregular  in  color  and  markings,  ranging  from  yellow  to  black, 
many  of  them  being  gray,  with  each  feather  marked  with  a 
dark  bar.  Both  males  and  females  always  have  white  feet 
and  toe  nails. 

The  following  statement  in  regard  to  the  Ronquieres  turkey 
is  from  Louis  Vander  Snickt,  of  Belgium:  "This  variety  is 
divided  into  three  sub  varieties :  the  gray-brown;  the  buff, 
which  is  the  most  beautiful;  and  the  white  and  black.  In 
the  last  named  there  are  pure  white  or  white  with  a  little  black 
spot  or  a  black  lacing  on  each  feather,  and  also  finely  ticked 
with  black,  imtil  some  specimens  are  almost  entirely  black. 
So  long  as  the  legs  are  white,  this  does  not  matter,  but  when 
the  plumage  becomes  totally  black,  the  legs  are  black  also, 
and  the  turkey  can  no  longer  be  called  a  Ronquieres." 

39.  Mating. — Ronquieres  turkeys  are  mated  for  size, 
shape,  and  length  of  breast  and  body  formation  best  suited 
for  market.  But  little  attention  is  given  .  to  selection  for 
color.  In  some  localities  where  they  have  been  selected  and 
mated  for  plumage  color,  they  are  black  with  gray,  somewhat 
like  Narragansett  turkeys. 


SLATE  TURKEY 

40.  Origin. — The  Slate  turkey  originated  from  flocks 
where  all  varieties  were  permitted  to  intermingle.  Turkeys 
with  slate  plumage  will  come  from  cross-mating  Black  or  Bronze 
turkeys  with  Buff,  Fawn,  or  White  turkeys. 

41.  Development. — Slate  turkeys  have  never  been  devel- 
oped to  any  extent.  Although  they  have  been  recognized  as 
a  distinct  variety  with  slaty-blue  plumage,  they  are  irregularly 
marked  and  cannot  be  depended  on  to  breed  true  to  color. 


630  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  §  13 

42.  History. — But  little  can  be  said  about  the  Slate 
turkeys,  except  that  they  have  always  been  recognized  as  a 
separate  variety,  but  they  have  never  been  handled  in  a 
manner  that  would  make  them  popiilar. 

43.  Description.— In  general  formation.  Slate  turkeys 
should  be  the  same  as  turkeys  of  other  varieties.  Their  plu- 
mage should  be  slate,  dark  slate,  or  slaty  blue  throughout,  and 
usually  dotted  with  black  spots.  Their  shanks  and  toes  are 
either  light  or  dark  slaty  blue  to  match  the  plumage.  Although 
this  description  meets  the  requirements  of  the  Standard,  but 
few  turkeys  conform  to  it.  The  plumage  is  usually  of  a  slate 
color  and  marked  and  splashed  with  black ;  their  shanks  range 
in  color  from  a  light  to  a  dark  slaty  blue.  But  few  of  attractive 
color  have  been  bred. 

44.  Mating. — If  as  much  attention  were  given  to  Slate 
turkeys  as  is  necessary  to  produce  the  color  and  markings  of 
the  Andalusian  fowls,  they  could  be  made  attractive.  To 
establish  slate  color  wotdd  require  years  of  careful  breeding 
from  the  best  that  could  be  found,  and  then  mating  and  rema- 
ting  the  offspring  until  in  color  and  markings  they  had  become 
the  same  as  the  Andalusians. 


WHITE  TURKEY 

45.  Origin. — Early  writers  state  that  white  turkeys 
came  from  Holland,  and  in  respect  to  the  place  of  their  origin 
they  were  named  White  Holland  turkeys.  They  are  generally 
known  as  the  Wliite  turkey.  Turkeys  with  white  plimiage 
might  come  as  sports  from  any  of  the  dark-plumaged  varieties, 
and  it  is  well  known  that  such  sports  have  come  from  both 
Bronze  and  Narragansett  turkeys. 

46.  Development.- — For  many  years  White  turkeys  were 
considered  too  delicate  for  general-purpose  breeding,  and  for 
this  reason  they  received  but  little  attention.  Their  recent 
development  in  America  has  greatly  improved  them. 


k  A 


§  13  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  631 

47.  History. — ^At  one  time  White  turkeys  were  nearly 
obsolete.  Later,  more  attention  was  bestowed  on  them,  and 
white  sports  from  Bronze  and  Narragansett  turkeys  were  crossed 
with  them.  Continued  crossing  with  white  sports  from  other 
varieties  strengthened  their  vitality,  increased  their  size,  and 
darkened  their  shanks  and  plumage.  Defects  in  these  respects 
have  been  removed  by  selecting  the  best  offspring,  and  White 
turkeys  are  now  proportionate  in  size  to  those  of  other  varieties. 
They  are  strong  and  vigorous,  and  have  pinkish- white  shanks. 
More  of  them  have  been  bred  during  recent  years  than  formerly, 
and  they  have  become  a  favorite  variety  for  both  exhibition 
and  market. 

48.  Description. — White  turkeys  are  heavier  than  the 
Black,  Buff,  or  Slate  turkeys.  The  Standard  weight  for 
mature  males  is  28  pounds;  for  young  males,  20  pounds;  for 
hens,  18  pounds;  and  for  pullets,  14  pounds.  Mature  males 
sometimes  reach  a  weight  of  34  pounds ;  mature  hens,  24  pounds ; 
yoimg  males,  from  22  to  24  poimds ;  and  young  females,  from  16 
to  17  pounds.  Such  unusual  size  may  be  attained  only  by  the 
use  of  the  largest  hens  for  breeding  purposes. 

The  beak,  shanks,  and  toes  are  pinkish  white;  the  eyes  are 
brown,  but  not  so  dark  as  in  other  varieties;  the  plumage  is 
white  throughout.  Pure  white  plumage  without  foreign  color 
is  unusual;  the  plumage  is  apt  to  show  both  creamy- white  and 
dark  markings.  In  all  varieties  of  turkeys,  except  the  White 
and  the  Black,  white  skin  prevails.  Some  strains  of  the  Black 
turkey  have  yellow  skin  and  flesh.  White  turkeys  bred  directly 
from  other  varieties  are  likely  to  have  flesh  and  skin  conform- 
ing to  the  color  of  the  parent  stock.  White  tin-keys  having 
pinkish-white  beak,  shanks,  and  toes  are  almost  certain  to  have 
skin  of  the  same  shade. 

49.  Mating. — To  succeed  in  breeding  White  turkeys  for 
exhibition,  large  hens  weighing  from  18  to  20  pounds,  with  pure 
white  plumage,  pinkish- white  beak,  skin,  and  feet  should  be 
mated  with  males  of  equal  quality  that  weigh  not  less  than  20 
pounds  when  young,  and  from  26  to  30  poimds  when  matured. 


632  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  §  13 

Both  should  have  well-proportioned  bodies  and  perfect  health. 
No  ailing  tiirkeys  should  be  used  for  breeding  purposes. 

To  improve  size,  strength,  and  vigor  in  the  offspring,  white- 
plumaged  hen  tiirkeys  that  have  come  as  sports  from  the  darker 
varieties  may  be  mated  with  White  males,  and  the  male  off- 
spring that  have  pinkish-white  beaks,  skin,  shanks,  and  toes 
may  be  bred  directly  into  the  flock.  No  attempt  should  be 
made  to  breed  directly  into  a  flock  of  White  turkeys  a  male 
turkey  with  dark  shanks.  When  such  males  are  to  be  used, 
they  should  be  mated  with  the  best  White  females,  and  the 
offspring  should  be  introduced  through  the  use  of  the  best 
females  so  produced.  Male  turkeys  that  have  bad  body  forma- 
tion and  are  deficient  in  color  of  beak,  shanks,  feet,  or  plumage 
are  unfit  for  general  use  in  a  flock  of  White  tiu^keys  kept  and 
bred  for  exhibition.  

PEAFOWLS 


VARIETIES 

50.  Peafowls  are  indigenous  to  Asiatic  countries.  They 
are  plentiful  in  the  large  forests  of  India  and  inhabit  the  moun- 
tainous regions  also.  Their  domestication  has  been  recorded 
through  many  centuries,  and  their  outline  can  be  traced  in 
ancient  Greek  paintings.  Large  numbers  have  been  distributed 
to  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  they  have  been  domesticated  in 
Europe  and  America.  They  seem  to  do  best  where  the  winters 
are  not  severe,  yet  they  can  be  bred  successfully  in  the  Eastern 
and  Middle  States,  and  some  have  been  bred  as  far  north  as 
Central  Canada. 

Four  varieties  of  peafowls  are  recognized  by  persons  who 
breed  them  for  ornamental  purposes.  These  are  the  Black- 
Winged,  the  Common,  the  Javan,  and  the  White.  Perhaps  the 
Common  and  the  Javan  were  the  original  varieties  and  the 
others  were  formed  by  sports  from  them. 

51.  Development. — Peafowls  have  not  been  developed 
by  man.     Those  kept  in  domestication  never  equal  the  wild 


§  13  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  633 

varieties  in  their  natural  state.  The  only  development  they 
have  received,  or  perhaps  the  only  domestication,  has  been 
from  keeping  them  in  gardens  and  parks  more  for  ornamenta- 
tion than  for  use. 

52.  History.— P.  Martin  Duncan,  M.  P.,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  G.  S., 
of  London,  locates  the  original  peafowls  in  India,  where  they 
are  seen  in  large  flocks.  He  says  they  are  even  more  beautiful 
in  a  wild  state  than  in  domestication  and  that  they  frequent 
forests  and  jungle  places,  naturally  thriving  in  hilly  and  moun- 
tainous districts.  They  come  forth  in  the  open  glades  and  fields 
to  feed  in  the  morning  and  evening,  retiring  to  the  jungle  for 
shelter  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  and  roosting  at  night  on 
high  trees.  They  ascend  the  Nilgiri  Hills  and  other  mountain 
regions  in  Southern  India  to  an  elevation  of  6,000  feet  or  more, 
but  do  not  ascend  the  Himalayas  above  2,000  feet.  Many 
Hindu  temples  have  large  flocks  of  peafowls,  and  shooting  them 
is  forbidden  in  some  Hindu  states.  Peafowls  breed  according 
to  the  locality,  generally  from  April  to  October. 


BLACK-WINGED  PEAFOWL 

53.  The  Black -Winged  peafowl  has  been  known  as  the 
peafowl  of  Japan.  It  differs  from  the  Common  peafowl  in 
having  black  wings  burnished  with  a  bluish-green  tinge;  the 
flight  feathers  of  the  wings  are  of  a  cinnamon  color,  striped  with 
a  darker  brown  or  black ;  the  plumage  of  the  female  is  a  grayish 
white,  splashed  with  black. 


COMMON  PEAFOWL 

54.  Origin. — The  Common  peafowl  is  the  variety  most 
common  in  India.  Fowls  of  this  variety  are  found  there  in 
large  numbers,  and  it  is  almost  certain  that  they  originated 
in  that  locality. 

55.  Development. — The  Common  peafowls  have  been 
developed  only  for  domestication,  and  they  can  be  kept  in  any 
locality  where  turkeys  will  prosper. 


634  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  §  13 

56.  History. — It  is  said  that  long  before  the  Christian  era 
peafowl  tongues  were  considered  the  daintiest  of  all  dishes.  If 
this  statement  is  accepted  as  a  fact,  and  there  is  no  reason  to 
doubt  that  such  dishes  were  served  at  the  banquets  of  ancients, 
it  is  amazing  to  think  of  the  number  of  peafowls  that  would 
have  to  be  killed  in  order  to  serve  the  guests  at  a  single  banquet. 

57.  Description. — The  Common  peafowl  is  not  unlike 
the  turkey  in  body  formation.  In  head  and  neck  it  differs 
from  the  turkey  in  having  a  crest  of  twenty  or  more  feathers  on 
the  top  of  the  head  and  a  growth  of  feathers  over  the  head  and 
neck.  The  females  are  more  somber  in  color  than  the  males 
and  do  not  grow  the  long  tail  feathers  so  much  admired  in  the 
males.  The  color  of  the  female  is  mostly  chestnut  brown, 
shaded  with  bluish  white;  the  flight  feathers  of  both  males  and 
females  are  light  chestnut  color.  The  peculiar  feature  of  the 
peacock  is  the  long,  flowing  tail  that  grows  from  the  back  and 
spreads  profusely,  some  of  the  feathers  being  of  great  length. 
These  are  called  a  train  and  are  bluish  green,  shaded  with  a 
beautiful  marking  at  the  end  of  each  feather.  The  body 
plumage  is  emblazoned  with  blue,  and  the  thighs  and  sides 
are  marked  with  gray. 

58.  Mating. — The  only  method  of  mating  that  can  be 
applied  to  peafowls  is  to  select  the  best  and  most  beautifully 
plumaged  fowls  (not  akin,  if  possible)  and  give  them  their 
freedom,  either  in  a  park  or  in  an  enclosure  that  is  large  enough 
to  permit  them  to  wander  about.  When  kept  in  a  small 
enclosure,  one  male  and  two  or  three  females  will  answer  best. 
Where  they  have  the  freedom  of  a  large  estate,  twelve  or 
fifteen  females  with  as  many  or  half  as  many  males  may  be 
kept.  When  the  number  of  males  and  females  is  the  same 
they  are  likely  to  mate  in  pairs.  Where  there  are  more  males 
than  females  there  will  be  fighting  in  the  flock.  The  female 
will  hide  her  nest  under  brush  or  among  bushes,  and  her  mate 
will  wander  about,  remaining  close  at  hand  during  the  period 
of  incubation,  and  will  help  her  care  for  the  young  when  they 
are  hatched. 


.XOWtN  ME.a*PJ3EX^ 


241-1  L  T  117    §  13  Pea  Fowl  and  Guinea  Fowl 


13  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  635 


JAVAN  PEAFOWL 

59.  The  Javan  peafowl  is  said  to  have  originated  on  the 
island  of  Java,  but  there  is  no  certainty  as  to  this.  The  fowls 
of  this  variety  are  unlike  those  of  other  varieties,  which  would 
indicate  that  they  are  of  a  different  origin  than  the  others. 
They  are  said  to  inhabit  both  Siam  and  Borneo.  They  are 
larger  than  the  Common  peafowl,  and  both  males  and  females 
have  beautiful  pltimage,  the  gound  color  of  which  is  green, 
emblazoned  with  coppery  bronze,  blue,  and  greenish  blue. 
But  few  have  ever  been  seen  except  on  private  estates  or  gardens 
where  such  fowls  are  kept  for  ornamentation.  Although  they 
might  be  bred  in  any  locality  where  the  winters  are  reasonably 
mild,  there  is  no  evidence  that  this  has  been  accomplished. 


WHITE  PEAFOWL 

60.  The  White  peafowl  had  its  origin  in  sports  from 
other  varieties.  The  fowls  of  this  variety  have  pure  white 
plumage  and  are  very  rare.  A  few  have  been  seen  in  America, 
but  they  are  more  numerous  in  European  coimtries.  Whether 
or  not  they  will  breed  true  to  plumage  color  has  not  been 
established,  and  it  is  impossible  to  affirm  that  they  will  produce 
their  own  kind.  Evidence  of  their  ancestry  will  be  seen  by 
holding  before  a  strong  light  the  tail  feathers  of  the  male. 
When  this  is  done,  the  peculiar  markings,  or  ocelli,  of  the 
darker  varieties  can  be  traced  in  outline. 


C3G  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  §  13 


GUINEA  FOWLS 

61.  There  are  several  varieties  of  guinea  fowls,  and  it 
is  claimed  that  all  have  been  found  in  Africa.  Whether  they 
are  all  distinct  varieties  or  whether  some  have  come  from 
intermingHng  two  or  more  original  varieties  is  not  known. 
It  is  thought  by  some  persons  that  the  Pearl  and  Vulturine 
were  the  original  varieties  and  that  all  others  sprang  from  them. 
The  best  known  varieties  are  the  Pearl  and  the  White.  The 
Vultiuine  giiinea  is  one  of  the  most  beautifully  plimiaged  of 
all  fowls.  

PEARL  GUINEA  FOWL 

62.  Origin. — Guinea  fowls  are  said  to  have  originated 
in  Africa.  It  is  also  claimed  that  they  were  foimd  in  other 
localities,  but  whether  they  were  carried  thence  from  Africa 
or  were  indigenous  to  those  locaHties  cannot  be  stated. 

63.  Development. — For  centuries  guinea  fowls  have  been 
bred  in  many  localities.  They  have  been  kept  wherever  man 
existed,  but  so  Httle  attention  has  been  given  to  their  breeding 
that  it  might  be  said  that  they  are  self -developed. 

64.  History. — In  writing  the  history  of  guinea  fowls, 
Moubray  says:  "According  to  mythology,  the  Meleagrides, 
the  sisters  of  Meleager  (son  of  Ceneus,  King  of  Macedonia), 
who  were  cruelly  put  to  death  bewailing  the  death  of  their 
imfortunate  brother,  were  metamorphosed  into  guinea  fowls; 
the  showers  of  tears  they  shed  bedecked  their  otherwise  sable 
plumage  with  white  spots;  and,  were  it  not  too  grave  a  subject 
for  jest,  we  should  state  that  this  melancholy  origin  may  accoimt 
for  the  mournful  cry  of  'come  back,'  which  the  guinea  hen 
utters  to  this  day." 

Later  writers  styled  the  guinea  fowls  Numidian  fowls.  In 
Portuguese  they  are  called  Pintada,  and  in  Spanish,  Pentates, 
both  words  signifying  painted.     Later,  they  become  known  as 


§  13  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  637 

Pearly  fowls,  because  of  the  pearl-like  spots  on  their  plumage. 
They  are  now  called  Pearl  guinea  fowls. 

65.  Description. — The  body  formation  of  Pearl  guinea 
fowls  is  round  and  compact;  the  back  is  arched  into  a  half 
circle  from  the  shoulders  to  the  tip  of  the  tail ;  the  neck  is  rather 
long  in  proportion  to  the  body;  the  head  is  of  medium  size; 
the  face,  wattles,  and  helmet,  which  grows  on  top  of  the  head 
in  place  of  a  comb,  are  red,  burnished  with  purple;  patches  of 
white  grow  from  the  sides  of  the  face  and  neck;  the  body 
plumage  is  slaty  blue  throughout,  with  pearl-like  spots.  The 
distinguishing  features  between  the  males  and  the  females 
are  the  larger  helmet  and  the  more  erect  carriage  of  the  male, 
and  their  habit  of  running  about  on  tiptoe  calling  loudly. 

66.  Mating. — The  mating  of  Pearl  guinea  fowls  to  pro- 
duce large  offspring  with  perfect  color  can  be  accomplished  only 
by  selecting  the  best  that  can  be  found,  and  mating  and  rema- 
ting  their  offspring,  always  selecting  the  largest  and  best 
females. 


VULTURINE  GUINEA  FOWL 

67.  Origin. — The  Vulturine  guinea  fowl  originated 
in  Africa.  It  is  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the  varieties  that 
have  been  brought  from  that  coimtry.  Guineas  of  this  variety 
are  rare,  and  but  few  have  been  brought  to  America. 

68.  Development. — But  little  is  known  of  the  habits  of 
the  Vulturine  guinea  fowls  in  their  wild  state,  and  only  a  few 
have  been  kept  in  confinement.  Some  kept  by  Homer  Daven- 
port, of  New  Jersey,  became  so  tame  that  they  would  eat  from 
his  hand.  They  have  been  bred  in  Europe  but  never  in  America. 
It  is  thought  that  they  could  be  established  and  would  do  well 
in  Florida  or  Southern  California.  They  are  more  beautiful 
than  the  common  kinds  of  pheasants,  and  they  would  serve  a 
better  purpose  in  the  destruction  of  bugs  and  be  valuable  as 
table  poultry. 

69.  Description. — It  is  difficult  to  describe  the  Vulturine 
guinea  fowl,  since  it  does  not  conform  in  shape  or  plumage  color 


638  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  §  13 

to  any  other  variety  of  the  family.  It  has  been  known  as  the 
Vulturine  Royal  Guinea,  referring  perhaps  to  its  kingly  appear- 
ance and  to  the  shape  of  its  head,  which  is  fashioned  much  like 
the  head  of  a  vulture.  About  its  neck  and  growing  down  over 
the  shoulders  and  breast  is  a  cape  of  long,  pointed  feathers, 
which  have  the  appearance  of  a  hackle.  These  feathers  are 
beautifully  colored,  having  white  stripes  down  the  center, 
with  an  edging  of  black  finely  dotted  with  white  and  bordered 
with  blue;  the  feathers  of  the  back  are  of  similar  form  and 
color.  The  rest  of  the  body  plimiage  is  said  to  be  a  blackish- 
brown,  ornamented  with  pearl-like  spots.  Its  appearance  is 
that  of  a  fowl  clad  in  beautiful  plumage  with  a  long,  flowing 
circle  of  feathers  extending  down  the  neck  and  on  to  the  breast 
and  back,  covering  the  shoulders;  and  the  entire  body  color 
is  emblazoned  with  a  rich,  glossy  polish,  which  at  times  reflects 
blue,  purple,  or  a  bluish-bronze  sheen.  The  tail  feathers  are 
longer  than  those  of  the  other  varieties  of  guinea  fowls. 

70.  Mating. — Man  cannot  select  and  mate  Vulturine 
guinea  fowls  better  than  they  will  mate  naturally.  If  two  or 
three  females  and  one  or  two  males  are  kept  in  an  enclosure 
they  will  live  peaceably,  but  two  pair  kept  in  a  small  enclosure 
during  the  breeding  season  may  quarrel.  If  the  enclosure  is 
large  enough  for  each  pair  to  have  their  own  part  and  their 
own  nest,  many  pairs  may  be  kept.  Guinea  fowls  can  be 
acclimated  in  any  country  where  the  temperature  is  not  colder 
than  is  it  at  night  in  the  mountains  of  Africa,  and  where  there 
is  plenty  of  woodland,  open  fields,  and  natural  food  for  them. 
If  kept  in  confinement,  special  attention  should  be  given  to 
their  health  and  to  selecting  females  having  size  and  vitality. 


WHITE  GUINEA  FOWL 

71.  Origin. — The  White  guinea  fowl  is  supposed  to 
have  originated  from  sports  from  Pearl  guinea  fowls. 

72.  Development. — To  develop  the  White  guinea  fowls, 
white  or  nearly  white  fowls  were  selected,  mated,  and  remated 
for  the  production  of  guinea  fowls  having  white  plumage. 


§  13  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  639 

73.  History. — Naturalists  state  that  wherever  dark- 
colored  peafowls,  guinea  fowls,  or  turkeys  are  bred,  albino, 
or  white,  offspring  sport  from  them.  White  guinea  fowls  are 
mentioned  as  having  existed  from  the  beginning  of  the  domesti- 
cation of  guinea  fowls. 

74.  Description. — The  White  guinea  fowl  has  the  same 
general  body  formation  as  the  Pearl  guinea  fowl;  the  plumage 
is  pure  white;  the  shanks  and  toes  are  usually  red,  or  red 
shaded  with  a  darker  color. 

75.  Mating. — The  most  that  has  been  done  in  mating 
White  guinea  fowls  has  been  to  select  for  white  plumage 
without  regard  to  other  conditions.  A  few  have  been  selected 
for  size,  shape,  and  color,  and  in  this  way  size  has  been  improved. 
If  more  attention  were  given  to  selecting  large  females  with 
perfect  color  and  mating  them  with  males  of  the  best  form  and 
color  that  are  not  akin  to  the  females,  improvement  would 
quickly  follow. 

OTHER  VARIETIES  OF  THE  GUINEA  FOWL 

76.  A  number  of  variety  colors  have  come  from  inter- 
mingling or  cross-mating  Pearl  and  White  guinea  fowls.  The 
Gray  guinea  has  a  ground  color  of  grayish  blue  or  dull 
lavender,  irregularly  spotted  throughout.  The  Mottled,  or 
Pied,  guinea  has  a  white  breast  and  white  wing  flights,  but 
otherwise  it  is  quite  like  the  Pearl  guinea.  There  is  a  Laced,  or 
Black -Penciled  guinea,  but  it  is  exceedingly  rare.  It  has 
a  ground  color  of  white,  marked  with  black  spots;  some  of  this 
variety  are  said  to  have  markings  like  the  Sebright  lacing  in 
their  plumage.  At  one  time  a  Black  guinea  existed;  this  was 
so  dark  that  the  spots  on  the  plumage  were  almost  obliterated. 
In  addition  to  these,  there  is  a  Purple  guinea,  which  has  a 
light  purple  shade  throughout  the  plumage,  marked  with  spots. 
Records  show  that  all  of  these  varieties  have  existed  within 
the  last  two  centuries. 

Moubray  mentioned  a  Tufted,  or  Crested,  guinea.  He 
stated  that  this  was  similar  to  the  Pearl  guinea  fowl  except 
in  the  head  and  neck,  which  were  more  like  the  head  and 


640  FOWLS  OF  THE  PHEASANT  FAMILY  §  13 

neck  of  a  turkey,  and  that  a  tuft  of  feathers  grew  on  the  head, 
forming  a  black  crest  instead  of  a  helmet;  the  feathers  were 
spotted  with  grayish  dots,  the  number  varying  from  four  to 
six  on  each  feather.  Whether  this  was  a  true  variety  or  an 
unusual  offspring  from  other  varieties  has  not  been  told. 


DUCKS  AND  GEESE 


DUCKS 


ORIGIN 

1.  Naturalists  have  claimed  that  the  wild  Mallard  duck 
is  the  original  from  which  all  domestic  ducks  have  descended, 
but  they  have  failed  to  discover  an  ancestor  for  the  Mallard. 
There  are  various  kinds  of  wild  ducks,  but  the  Mallard  is  the 
only  kind  that  has  breed  characters  that  conform  to  those  in 
domestic  ducks.  The  Mallard  and  the  Rouen  have  the  same 
general  body  formation  and  plimiage  color.  The  earliest 
illustrations  show  that  the  plumage  of  the  wild  or  Mallard 
duck  was  the  same  then  as  now,  and  this  color  is  strongly  pres- 
ent in  the  Rouen  breed.  By  careful  selection  and  mating,  the 
Rouen  ducks  ha,ve  been  made  larger,  more  btdky  in  body  for- 
mation, less  agile,  and  less  inclined  to  fly.  Whether  or  not 
all  ducks  have  descended  from  one  original  variety  may  never 
be  known. 

It  is  impossible  to  state  definitely  just  how  early  the  domes- 
tic duck  was  developed.  The  ancestors  of  the  Aylesbury  were 
perhaps  the  first  variety  of  white-plumaged  ducks,  and  they 
are  said  to  have  existed  for  centuries  before  their  development 
or  improvement  began.  All  variety  colors  in  ducks  may  have 
descended  from  one  breed  of  wild  ducks,  for  sports  are  as  likely 
to  come  from  them  as  from  the  black-red  varieties  of  poultry. 
White  offspring  may  have  appeared  centuries  ago,  and  these, 
bred  again  with  the  Mallard,  may  have  produced  blue  or  fawn- 
colored  plumage,  and,  as  a  natural  result,  other  colors  have 
been  developed  from  them. 

641 


642  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  §  14 

All  breeds  and  varieties  of  ducks  have  been  greatly  improved 
in  size,  body  formation,  and  plimiage  color  dtiring  the  last 
century.  The  Call  ducks,  which  were  natiu^ally  small,  have 
been  reduced  in  size  and  beautified  in  plumage;  the  Muscovy, 
the  Runner,  and  the  newer  varieties  of  Buff  Orpington  and 
Khaki  ducks  have  been  so  improved  within  the  last  twenty- 
five  years  that  they  are  favorites  in  many  localities. 


AYLESBURY  DUCK 

2.  Origin. — The  Aylesbury  duck  has  come  from  white 
ducklings  that  from  time  to  time  have  appeared  among  the 
offspring  of  wild  varieties.  An  occiurence  of  this  kind  was 
reported  as  late  as  1900.  Three  white  ducklings  came  in  a 
lot  that  had  been  hatched  from  wild  duck  eggs.  The  white 
offspring  were  bred  together,  and  white-plumaged  ducks  were 
produced  from  them.  Other  such  occurrences  have  been 
reported.  The  best  of  all  the  white-plumaged  ducks  that 
could  be  foimd  in  that  locality  were  selected  by  duck  grow- 
ers living  near  the  town  of  Aylesbury  in  England.  They 
were  bred,  fed  liberally,  selected,  and  mated  until  a  breed  of 
white-plimiaged  ducks  was  established,  having  white  bills  and 
orange  shanks  and  feet.  The  best  offspring  were  selected, 
and  in  this  way  the  breed  was  made  and  was  named  for  the 
town  in  which  the  ducks  originated. 

3.  Development. — ^Aylesbury  ducks  were  first  developed 
for  exhibition  by  the  fanciers  of  England.  They  were  bred 
and  improved,  and  they  became  famous  for  their  beautiful 
form  and  clean,  clear,  white  plumage.  Large  numbers  of  them 
have  been  bred  and  shown  in  England;  fewer  of  them  in 
America. 

4.  History. — Aylesbury  ducks  have  been  most  highly  con- 
sidered for  market  poultry  since  prior  to  1860.  Beginning  at 
about  that  time,  large  nimibers  were  sold  annually  from  the 
territory  about  Aylesbury,  all  of  them  being  killed  when  8 
weeks  old  and  sent  to  market  at  the  season  when  they  would 
bring  the  highest  prices.     Their  popularity  continued  until  they 


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- 1 


§  14  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  643 

were  supplanted  by  the  Pekin  ducks.  About  1870,  the  breed- 
ers of  fancy  ducks  conceived  the  idea  of  making  the  Aylesbury 
beautiful  for  exhibition.  Some  were  selected  with  reference  to 
size  and  color  and  for  light-colored  bills  and  bright  orange 
shanks.  They  were  bred  and  fed  until  they  attained  enormous 
size,  and  in  the  exhibition  hall  they  were  for  years  even  more 
popular  than  the  Rouen.  Since  the  coming  of  the  Pekin  ducks, 
the  popularity  of  the  Aylesbury  has  waned. 

5.  Description. — The  Aylesbury  duck  appears  to  have 
a  longer  body  than  is  usual  with  either  the  Rouen  or  the  Pekin. 
This  is  caused  by  its  straight  and  elongated  back,  with  like 
formation  along  the  breast  line,  giving  the  body  the  appear- 
ance of  great  length  in  proportion  to  size,  which  is  large.  The 
ducks  weigh  from  7  to  10  poimds,  or  more.  The  bill  is  white 
or  flesh  colored;  the  eyes,  dark;  the  shanks  and  feet,  orange; 
the  plumage,  pure  white  and  free  from  creaminess  or  other 
foreign  color.  The  beauty  of  the  Aylesbury  duck  for  exhi- 
bition is  its  snow-white  plumage  and  pinkish-white  bill,  with 
shanks  of  a  bright  orange. 

6.  Mating. — In  the  mating  of  Aylesbury  ducks,  the  largest 
males  and  females  that  have  great  length  of  body,  pure  white 
plumage,  pinkish-white  bills,  and  bright  orange  shanks  and 
feet  should  be  selected.  Ducks  of  this  quality  that  are  2  or 
3  years  old  can  be  mated  to  yearling  drakes  that  are  as  nearly 
perfect  as  possible. 

All  ducks  will  breed  well  if  they  are  permitted  to  have  the 
freedom  of  a  range  and  swimming  pool.  But  few  will  lay  in 
nests  or  hatch  their  own  eggs,  and  they  will  do  this  only  when 
they  have  been  taught.  They  should  be  housed  at  night  and 
not  released  until  about  10  o'clock  each  morning;  by  that  time 
most  of  the  ducks  will  have  laid  their  eggs  on  the  floor,  which 
should  be  covered  with  straw.  To  be  successful  with  ducks, 
the  floor  of  the  house  must  be  sanitary,  the  straw  must  be 
removed  and  dried  in  the  sim,  the  floor  swept  clean,  strewn 
with  sand  to  a  depth  of  ^  inch,  and  the  dried  or  clean  straw 
spread  over  this.  A  house  suitable  for  ducks  is  shown  in 
Fig.    1.     If  the  ducks  are  permitted  to  run  about  without 


%^<^ 


§  14  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  645 

restraint,  most  of  the  eggs  will  be  lost  on  the  ground  or  in  the 
swimming  pool.  Eggs  from  ducks  that  have  a  swimming  pool 
are  more  likely  to  be  fertile  and  the  ducklings  will  have  more 
vitality  than  when  they  are  deprived  of  this,  or  grown  entirely 
on  dry  ground. 

To  teach  ducks  to  lay  in  a  nest  or  to  hatch  their  own  eggs, 
they  must  be  hatched  and  reared  by  mother  ducks,  and  from 
the  beginning  they  must  be  shut  into  the  house  with  the  mother 
ducks  at  night.  Nests  should  be  made  on  the  floor,  and  from 
this  training  some  of  the  young  ducks  will  acquire  the  habit 
from  those  that  incubate  their  eggs.  Some  breeds  of  ducks 
do  this  naturally  and  others  can  never  be  taught  to  do  it. 


CALL  DUCK 

7.  Origin. — The  Call  duck  is  a  bantam  duck  that  is 
said  to  have  been  made  by  selecting  the  smallest  Mallard 
and  small  white  ducks  and  breeding,  inbreeding,  hatching  late, 
and  rearing  them  on  dry  land  with  but  little  feed.  In  this 
way  two  varieties  were  made,  one  the  Gray  Call,  which  is 
colored  like  the  Mallard;  the  other,  the  White  Call,  which 
has  white  plumage. 

8.  Developraent. — The  Call  ducks  were  developed  from 
the  smallest  ducks  that  could  be  selected,  with  plumage  color 
like  the  wild  Mallard,  and  the  smallest  white  ducks.  Their 
offspring  were  remated  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  size  and 
having  bantam  ducks  of  two  varieties. 

9.  History. — Moubray  stated  that  in  early  days  there 
was  a  marsh  duck  in  Norfolk,  of  a  rather  diminutive  kind 
which  resembled  the  Mallard  both  in  appearance  and  plu- 
mage, and  that  in  the  cottager  yards  specimens  of  a  small 
Dutch  breed  were  frequently  seen.  These  were  of  a  pretty 
and  peculiar  appearance.  The  plumage  was  of  a  whole  color, 
either  a  slaty-blue  or  dun  shade,  or  a  sandy-yellow  or  cinnamon, 
and  sometimes  it  was  like  the  color  of  a  tortoise-shell  cat. 
These  were  called  Rotterdam  ducks  on  account  of  having 


646  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  >  §  14 

been  obtained  from  that  place.  Moubray  further  stated  that 
the  Call  ducks,  also  from  Holland,  were  very  small,  and  that 
they  were  kept  or  valued  only,  as  their  name  indicates,  to  serve 
as  call,  or  decoy,  ducks  among  artificial,  or  imitation,  decoy 
ducks.  They  were  of  two  sorts,  one  with  pure  white  plumage 
and  the  other  with  a  grayish-brown  plumage  like  that  of  the 
Mallard. 

10.  Description. — There  are  two  varieties  of  Call  ducks. 
One,  the  Gray  Call,  has  shape  and  plumage  quite  like  that 
of  the  Mallard  duck,  dark-brown  eyes,  and  a  greenish-yellow 
bni  with  dark  shading.  The  other,  the  Wliite  Call,  has  pure 
white  plumage,  bright-yellow  or  orange  bill,  shanks,  and  feet, 
and  blue  eyes.  There  is  no  standard  weight  for  Call  ducks — 
the  smaller  they  are  the  greater  their  value. 

11.  Mating. — In  the  mating  of  Call  ducks  of  either  variety 
for  the  production  of  exhibition  offspring,  the  smallest  that 
can  be  found  with  perfect  plumage  color  and  markings,  accord- 
ing to  the  variety,  should  be  selected.  Special  attention  should 
be  given  to  having  small  females.  From  them,  offspring  may 
be  bred  that  wiU  be  an  improvement  on  the  parent  stock, 
provided  the  parent  stock  has  been  bred  in  line  long  enough 
to  have  established  breed  characters,  color,  and  markings  best 
suited  to  them. 

CAYUGA  DUCK 

12.  Origin. — The  Cayuga  duck  is  thought  to  have  been 
made  by  crossing  black  ducks  with  the  wild  Mallard. 

13.  Development. — ^The  Cayuga  ducks  have  never  been 
developed  to  any  extent,  except  that  they  have  been  bred  so 
as  to  free  their  plimiage  of  foreign  color  and  to  make  them  into 
ducks  that  have  black  plimiage  throughout,  and  that  breed 
reasonably  true. 

14.  History. — ^About  1851  black  ducks  made  their  appear- 
ance on  Cayuga  Lake,  New  York.  Later,  they  were  distributed 
throughout  America  and  England.     Although  they  were  first 


§  14  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  -  647 

brought  into  prominence  in  Cajoiga  County,  New  York,  they 
are  thought  to  have  originated  in  South  America  from  a  black 
duck  now  called  the  Black  East  India. 

15.  Description. — Cayuga  ducks  average  a  pound  less 
in  weight  than  is  required  in  Rouen  ducks.  Their  bills,  shanks, 
and  toes  are  dark  or  black;  the  eyes,  dark;  the  plumage,  bril- 
liant black  throughout,  glistening  with  sheen;  the  wing  primaries 
may  be  tinged  with  brown. 

16.  Mating. — ^Large  females  that  weigh  from  7  to  9  pounds 
when  2  years  old  and  from  6  to  7  pounds  when  yearlings  should 
be  mated  with  drakes  1  or  2  years  old  that  average  a  pound 
heavier  than  the  females.  They  must  all  have  beautiful  black 
plumage  throughout,  glistening  with  sheen.  If  the  wing  pri- 
maries of  the  females  are  overcast  with  brown,  those  of  the 
males  should  be  very  dark.  Special  attention  must  be  given 
to  having  perfect  black  surface  and  under  plumage;  this  will 
avoid  the  appearance  of  gray  or  white  in  the  offspring.  The 
bills,  shanks,  and  feet  should  be  black,  including  the  soles  of 
the  feet,  with  no  indication  of  yellow  or  orange  in  them. 


CRESTED  WHITE  DUCK 

17.  Origin. — The  Crested  Wliite  duck  has  been  known 
for  a  long  time.  Early  writers  have  stated  that  ducks  fre- 
quently appeared  with  tiifts  of  feathers  growing  on  the  top 
of  the  head.  Some  have  mentioned  the  fact  that  these  crests 
almost  equal  in  size  the  white  crests  of  the  Polish  fowls. 

18.  Development. — Crested  White  ducks  have  not  been 
developed  in  large  numbers.  Only  a  few  have  been  selected 
and  bred  for  the  improvement  of  size,  shape,  and  color. 

19.  History. — Frequent  mention  has  been  made  of  white 
ducks  that  had  feathers  on  their  heads,  and  other  breeds  of 
ducks  have  occasionally  been  mentioned  as  having  a  crest. 
Crests  have  appeared  in  flocks  of  Pekin  ducks  that  were  bred 
for  market.     Some  of  the  most  beautiful  crested  ducks  that 


648  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  §14 

have  been  shown  in  America  were  selected  from  a  flock  of 
Pekin  ducks  that  were  bred  in  Pennsylvania  for  market. 

20.  Description. — Crested  White  ducks  may  have  a  body 
formation  like  either  the  Aylesbury  or  the  Pekin.  They  have 
an  upright  carriage,  yellow  bills,  shanks,  and  toes,  dark  or  blue 
eyes,  and  pure  white  plumage  throughout,  with  a  crest  of 
feathers  growing  on  the  top  of  the  head.  The  crest  should  be 
round  and  evenly  balanced,  and  should  grow  close  to  the  top 
of  the  head.  When  there  is  too  much  space  between  the  top 
of  the  head  and  the  lower  part  of  the  crest,  it  is  called  a  bouquet 
crest,  because  of  the  stem  beneath.  Mature  drakes  of  this 
breed  weigh  7  pounds;  mature  females  and  yoimg  males, 
6  pounds;  immature  females,  5  pounds. 

21.  Mating. — Females  that  have  true  breed  characters, 
pm-e  white  plumage,  and  perfectly  shaped  crests  that  are 
evenly  balanced  on  the  head  should  be  selected  and  mated 
with  males  that  equal  them  in  quality.  Crests  that  are  too 
large  are  apt  to  lop  over  to  one  side.  Offspring  from  such 
stock  are  liable  to  have  the  same  defect. 


EAST  INDIA  DUCK 

22.  Origin. — The  East  India  duck  is  said  to  have 
originated  in  India. 

23.  Development  and  History. — The  East  India  ducks 
have  been  known  by  many  names,  among  them  being  Buenos 
Ayres,  Labrador,  Black  East  India,  and  Black  Brazilian.  They 
are  thought  to  have  come  as  sports  from  the  Mallard  ducks, 
and  in  many  localities  they  are  considered  as  identical  with  the 
Cayuga  ducks.  The  English  Standard  describes  the  Cayuga, 
and  the  American  Standard  describes  both  the  Cayuga  and 
the  East  India.  It  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  all  black 
ducks  have  come  from  the  wild  Mallard,  their  difference  in 
size  and  plumage  emanating  from  the  influence  or  environ- 
ment of  the  locaUty  in  which  they  were  bred. 


m 


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V 


§  14  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  649 

24.  Description. — East  India  ducks  are  of  the  same 
general  appearance  as  the  Mallard.  They  have  an  upright 
carriage  and  move  quickly.  Their  plumage  is  a  deep,  rich 
black,  with  a  brilliant  green  sheen;  their  bills  are  very  dark; 
their  eyes,  shanks,  and  feet  are  black.  The  main  differences 
between  the  East  India  and  the  Cayuga  ducks  are  in  size 
(the  Cayuga  being  larger)  and  in  richness  of  plumage  color. 
It  is  claimed  that  ducks  of  either  the  Cayuga  or  the  East  India 
breed  can  be  shown  in  either  or  both  classes.  The  smallest 
offspring  that  have  the  most  brilliant  plumage  may  be  shown 
as  East  India  ducks,  and  the  largest  and  less  brilliantly  colored 
offspring  may  be  shown  as  Cayuga  ducks. 

25.  Mating. — The  best  East  India  males  and  females 
should  be  mated,  special  attention  being  given  to  having  their 
plumage  black  to  the  skin  and  brilliant  with  green  sheen,  the 
bills  very  dark  green,  and  their  shanks  or  feet  very  dark  or 
black. 

RUNNER  DUCK 

26.  Origin. — The  Runner  duck  has  descended  from 
originals  that  were  brought  from  India,  the  first  importations 
being  made  into  England  about  1835.  It  is  claimed  that 
ducks  of  the  same  type  still  exist  in  India,  and  that  some  of 
them  were  brought  into  England  as  late  as  1906. 

27.  Development. — Although  the  general  appearance  of 
the  Runner  ducks  is  the  same  now  as  when  they  were  brought 
from  India,  they  have  been  changed,  developed,  and  improved 
into  better  form  and  color,  and  a  body  formation  best  suited 
for  prolific  egg  production. 

28.  History. — Runner  ducks  are  generally  known  as 
Indian  Runner  ducks.  This  name  was  given  to  them  on 
account  of  their  place  of  origin  and  their  habit  of  running 
about  continually.  Runner  duck  is  an  appropriate  name  for 
the  breed  and  is  the  one  adopted  here.  The  ducks  might 
properly  be  called  fawn-and-white  Runner  ducks.  When  first 
brought  from  India,   Runner  ducks  were  valued  chiefly  for 


650  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  §  14 

their  peculiarities  and  were  bred  in  a  careless  manner  until 
about  1890,  when  it  was  found  that  some  of  them  laid  about 
14  dozen  eggs  in  a  year.  A  club  was  then  formed  and  a  stand- 
ard made  for  them.  Later,  they  were  brought  to  America. 
About  the  same  time  special  attention  was  given  in  Australia 
to  breeding  them  for  egg  production,  without  regard  to  plumage 
color.  Following  this,  a  controversy  began  concerning  the 
color  of  plumage,  one  faction  claiming  that  the  English  type 
was  correct,  the  other  making  the  same  claim  for  the  American 
type.  In  reality  they  are  so  much  alike  that  it  is  difficult  to 
distinguish  between  them.  Some  claim  that  only  those  laying 
white-shelled  eggs  can  be  considered  pure;  others  insist  that 
only  those  laying  tinted-shelled  eggs  are  of  proper  breeding. 
Scientific  investigators  state  that  eggs  having  white  shells 
are  proper  for  the  Runner  ducks.  It  has  been  asserted,  with- 
out proof,  that  small  Rouen  females  have  been  crossed  into 
some  strains  of  the  Rimner  ducks. 

29.     Description. — ^An  unmistakable  feature  of  ptuity  in 
the  Runner  ducks  is  their  head  formation,  which  is  flat,  long, 
and  lean;  they  differ  materially  from  other  ducks  in  the  crown 
of  the  head  and  the  location  of  the  eye.     The  head  is  so  flat 
and  lean  as  to   give   the   eye   the 
appearance  of  being  almost  on  a 
level  with  the  top  of  the  skiill,  as 
shown  in  Fig,  2.     English  writers 
state  that  the  long  sweep  of  the  top 
line  of  the  head  should  be  continued 
without  an  indentation  or  a  break 
i'iG-2  down  to  the  tip  of  the  bill,  there 

being  no  dent  even  below  the  nostrils.  The  neck  should  be 
long,  slender,  and  straight  from  the  back  of  the  head  to  its 
juncture  with  the  body,  the  upper  part  being  covered  with 
short,  fine  feathers;  the  body  should  be  long  and  narrow;  the 
wings  of  medium  length  and  carried  close  to  the  body;  the  back, 
straight  from  the  shoulder  line  to  the  end  of  the  tail;  the  breast, 
round,  well  proportioned,  and  straight  from  below  the  point  of 
the  shoulder  to  between  the  thighs.     There  should  be  a  slight 


§  14  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  651 

enlargement  of  the  abdomen  between  and  directly  in  the  rear 
of  the  shanks,  with  a  taper  from  there  to  the  under  point  of 
the  tail.  The  English  Standard  describes  their  body  formation 
as  like  an  old-style  soda-water  bottle. 

The  body  color  of  both  males  and  females  should  be  fawn 
and  white.  The  color  of  the  head  in  the  males  should  be 
dark,  with  cheek  markings  of  a  lighter  shade,  approaching 
fawn;  the  neck,  white,  without  spots  or  markings.  In  the 
females  the  markings  should  be  the  same,  except  that  they 
should  conform  in  color  to  the  remainder  of  the  body,  which 
should  be  fawn,  with  as  little  dark  shading  as  possible. 

The  wing  bows  in  the  male  are  darker  than  those  in  the 
female;  the  under  cut,  or  markings  on  the  under  part  of  the 
body,  should  be  straight  and  distinct,  the  white  extending 
beyond  the  vent ;  the  primaries  and  secondaries,  ptu^e  white ;  the 
rump  may  have  dark  shadings  in  the  feathers;  the  main  tail 
feathers  may  have  a  white  tmder  color.  In  close  competition, 
black  curly  feathers  have  most  consideration,  but  they  may  be 
either  black,  white,  or  mixed  fawn  and  white.  In  yoiuig  ducks 
the  bill  is  lemon  or  orange  colored,  spotted  with  green.  These 
spots  gradually  spread  over  the  biU,  and  when  the  duck  is 
2  years  old,  the  bill  is  cucumber  green,  with  a  black  bean  at 
the  tip,  slightly  hooking  over  the  lower  mandible.  This  is 
especially  true  in  the  females,  and  any  other  color  should  count 
against  the  specimen.  The  shanks  and  feet  in  both  males 
and  females  are  orange  red;  the  eyes  are  dark  brown. 

Neither  the  American  Standard  nor  the  English  Poultry 
Club  Standards  recognizes  dark  markings  in  the  female.  They 
demand  fawn  and  white  as  the  only  permissible  colors.  The 
fawn  in  the  head  of  the  drake  is  darker  than  in  other  parts  of 
the  body.  Those  having  markings  in  plumage  like  that  of 
the  Rouen  females  are  discarded  imder  these  Standards  as 
unfit  for  the  exhibition  pen. 

One  EngHsh  Club  Standard  states  that  the  body  markings 
of  the  females  should  correspond  with  those  of  the  males, 
except  in  the  shade  of  fawn,  each  feather  having  two  distinct 
shades  of  fawn,  with  beautiful  lacing  and  penciling  and  very 
faint  lines  of  white  dividing  the  two  shades,  especially  in  the 


652  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  §  14 

overlap.  The  neck  and  breast  feathers  should  show  the  same 
penciling  when  handled  and  separated;  the  back  and  rump 
feathers  should  be  a  shade  richer  in  color,  but  as  the  pencil- 
ing is  covered  by  the  overlapping  it  is  not  in  evidence  when 
the  duck  is  at  liberty.  The  feathers  of  the  tail  should  match 
the  shade  of  color  in  the  back  and  rump.  White  tail  feathers 
are  considered  a  defect.  Ducks  so  marked  should  be  described 
as  a  separate  variety  and  not  classed  as  fawn-and-white  Runner 
ducks. 

30.  Mating. — ^For  the  production  of  exhibition  Runner 
ducks,  males  and  females  that  conform  to  breed  characters 
and  have  perfect  plumage  color  should  be  mated.  To  con- 
form to  the  fawn-and-white  type,  the  females  should  have 
fawn-and-white  plumage,  and  the  males  should  have  the  same 
colors  of  a  slightly  darker  shade.  If  males  with  the  darker 
shade  of  plumage  color  are  used  it  will  prevent  the  loss  of  color 
markings  in  the  offspring.  No  males  or  females  bred  from 
females  having  penciling  in  the  plumage  should  be  bred  into 
ducks  of  the  fawn-and-white  variety.  To  produce  those  hav- 
ing darker  shades  of  color  in  the  males  and  the  pencilings  in 
the  females,  males  and  females  having  color  and  markings 
as  desired  should  be  mated  together.  The  males  in  this  mating 
should  be  darker  in  shade  of  plumage  color  than  the  females 
with  which  they  are  mated.  To  establish  in  a  strain  the  pro- 
pensity for  laying  eggs  having  white  shells,  only  eggs  with 
white  shells  should  be  used  for  hatching.  When  mating  for 
egg  production  only,  females  of  the  best  body  formation  should 
be  selected  from  strains  that  produce  from  12  to  15  dozen 
eggs  in  a  year. 

WHITE  RUNNER  DUCK 

31.  Origin. — The  Wlilte  Runner  duck  was  made  by 
crossing  fawn-and-white  Rimner  ducks  with  a  breed  of  white 
ducks,  and  they  have  come  also  as  white  offspring  from  the 
fawn-and-white  variety. 

32.  Development. — The  White  Runner  ducks  have  been 
developed   through    selecting    the    best    from    the    cross-bred 


v^ : 


i"^"*^  -f^ 


§  14  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  653 

varieties  and  mating  them  for  form  and  color;  but  the  great- 
est improvement  has  come  from  selecting,  mating,  and  breed- 
ing in  their  purity  the  white  offspring  from  ducks  of  the 
fawn-and-white  variety. 

33.  History. — White  Runner  ducks  are  of  recent  origin, 
and  the  meager  information  that  can  be  gathered  relative  to 
them  has  been  given  in  their  development. 

34.  Description. — White  Runner  ducks  should  have  the 
same  body  formation  and  breed  characters  that  are  natural 
to  those  of  the  fawn-and-white  variety.  The  color  of  their 
eyes  is  slate  or  blue;  their  bills,  pale  yellow;  their  shanks  and 
toes,  orange;  the  body  plumage,  white  throughout.  White 
offspring  from  the  fawn-and-white  variety  are  shown  in  the 
color  illustration.  These  specimens  have  body  formation  fully 
equal  to  the  best  of  the  fawn-and-white  variety. 

35.  Mating. — The  most  dependence  can  be  placed  in 
breeding  White  Runner  ducks  in  a  direct  line  through  the  white 
offspring  of  the  fawn-and-white  variety,  or  in  selecting  those 
having  perfect  breed  characters,  yellow  bills,  shanks,  and  feet, 
and  beautiful  white  plumage.  All  ducks  that  have  white  plu- 
mage are  more  attractive  when  their  bills,  shanks,  and  feet 
are  yellow. 

MUSCOVY  DUCK 

36.  Origin. — The  Muscovy  duck  was  found  wild  in 
South  America;  other  than  this  its  original  source  is  unknown. 

37.  Development  and  History. — Early  explorers  of 
South  America  found  the  wild  ancestors  of  the  Muscovy  ducks. 
Experiments  made  by  cross-mating  them  with  other  breeds 
proved  that  they  were  a  distinct  species ;  such  matings  produced 
sterile  offspring.  They  were  formerly  called  Wild  Musk  ducks, 
and  are  occasionally  called  Brazilian  ducks.  They  inhabited 
the  wildest  localities  in  South  America,  feeding  in  the  marshes 
and  lowlands  and  nesting  in  high  places.  Their  early  domes- 
tication cannot  be  traced.     But  little  attention  was  given  to 


654  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  §  14 

their  improvement  prior  to  1870.  Since  that  time  they  have 
been  distributed  throughout  the  world,  and  have  been  not 
only  domesticated  in  America  and  European  countries,  but 
have  been  bred  to  form  and  color  for  exhibition.  The  females 
are  kind  and  tractable,  and  the  males  under  2  years  old  may  be 
controlled,  but  when  older  than  this  they  are  cross  to  children 
and  during  the  breeding  season  they  will  savagely  attack  per- 
sons or  animals  that  trespass  on  their  domain  and  disturb 
them  or  their  mates. 

38.  Description. — There  are  two  varieties  of  Muscovy 
ducks,  the  Colored  and  the  White.  Both  of  these  are  of  the 
same  general  body  formation,  the  males  being  larger  than  the 
females.  Their  shape,  size,  composition,  and  color  are  shown 
in  the  color  illustration.  The  Standard  requires  that  the  Col- 
ored Muscovy  duck  shall  have  a  pink  bill,  shaded  with  dark 
or  horn  color;  eyes,  brown;  shanks  and  toes,  yellow,  shaded 
with  a  darker  hue,  some  being  almost  black;  body  pltmiage, 
lustrous  black,  emblazoned  with  sheen  and  marked  with  white, 
black  predominating.  The  original,  or  wild,  specimens  were 
alniost  entirely  black,  and  the  other  varieties  are  thought  to 
have  descended  from  them. 

The  White  Muscovy  duck  has  a  pinkish-white  bill,  blue 
eyes,  orange  or  yellow  shanks  and  toes,  and  pure  white  plumage. 

Some  offspring  having  blue  plumage  somewhat  like  the 
Blue  Swedish  ducks  have  come  from  promiscuous  crossing 
of  the  Colored  and  White  Muscovy  ducks.  Also  some  having 
blue  pltmiage  barred  with  a  darker  shade  have  been  bred  from 
these  varieties. 

About  the  head  and  face  of  ducks  of  this  breed  is  a  growth 
like  the  caruncles  on  the  head  of  a  turkey.  When  they  are 
young,  there  is  but  little  of  this ;  as  they  grow  older,  it  increases 
until  the  head  and  face  are  overgrown  with  a  heavy,  red, 
corrugated  formation.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  males. 
Both  males  and  females  show  a  growth  of  feathers  on  the  top 
of  the  head  which  they  can  elevate  at  will. 

39.  Mating. — ^When  mating  Muscovy  ducks  for  exhi- 
bition, the  breeder  must  make  careful  selection  for  color  and 


§  14  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  655 

markings.  In  the  Colored  Muscovy  ducks,  black  should  pre- 
dominate in  both  males  and  females.  Special  attention  must 
be  given  to  selecting  females  that  are  larger  than  the  average. 
In  mating  White  Muscovy  ducks,  ducks  with  good  breed 
characters,  large  size,  and  pure  white  plumage  must  be  selected. 
To  improve  size,  large  females  2  years  old  or  older  should  be 
used  for  breeding.  These  ducks  will  continue  to  breed  for 
more  than  12  years,  and  it  is  claimed  that  they  have  pro- 
duced offspring  when  more  than  -20  years  old.  They  prefer 
to  select  their  nests,  lay,  hatch,  and  rear  their  own  young, 
but  they  can  be  domesticated  to  such  an  extent  that  they  will 
lay  in  coops,  under  boxes,  or  on  the  floor  in  the  comers  of  a 
duck  house. 

PEKIN  DUCK 

40.  Origin. — The  Pekin  duck  was  originally  bred  in 
China;  its  origin  is  unknown. 

41.  Development. — The  Pekin  duck  has  been  developed 
largely  in  America. 

42.  History. — Pekin  ducks  were  brought  from  China  into 
both  England  and  America  about  1870.  These  ducks  were 
distributed  throughout  the  United  States  and  made  use  of 
in  breeding  broiler  ducks.  Crosses  were  made  with  the 
Aylesbury  ducks  to  increase  size,  improve  table  qualities,  and 
invigorate  the  strain.  A  final  sifting  out  of  all  but  true  Pekin 
ducks  brought  the  greatest  improvement. 

43.  Description. — Pekin  ducks  have  moderately  upright 
carriage  with  round,  plump,  and  full  breast  and  body.  A 
peculiarity  of  this  breed  is  the  shape  of  the  rear  part  of  the 
abdomen.  This  is  flat,  having  the  appearance,  in  the  female, 
of  having  been  pressed  up,  as  if  molded  in  that  position  and  held 
there.  There  is  less  of  this  in  the  male.  The  main  tail  feathers 
of  both  males  and  females  have  a  tendency  to  turn  up  at  the 
points.  The  long,  straight  body  of  the  Aylesbury  or  Rouen 
is  not  correct  for  the  Pekin.  The  bill,  shanks,  and  feet  are 
deep  yellow  or  orange  and  free  from  black  markings;  the  eyes 
are  dark;  the  plumage  is  creamy  white. 


656  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  §  14 

44.  Mating. — In  mating  Pekin  ducks  for  the  production 
of  exhibition  offspring,  it  is  necessary  to  select  for  breeders 

"males  and  females  that  have  breed  characters  strongly  exem- 
plified. The  bills,  shanks,  and  toes  must  be  a  rich,  orange 
yellow;  the  pltimage,  as  white  as  possible,  with  no  creamy 
tinge  on  the  surface.  The  males  are  usually  larger  than  the 
females,  and  this  should  always  be  true  in  the  breeding  stock; 
the  females  should  be  large  and  well  formed.  Pekin  ducks 
seldom  become  broody,  and  but  few  hatch  and  rear  their 
young. 

ROUEN  DUCK 

45.  Origin. — It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  original 
home  of  the  Rouen  duck  was  Rouen,  France. 

46.  Development. — The  Rouen  ducks  have  been  devel- 
oped from  small  ducks  resembling  the  Mallard  into  one  of  the 
best  ducks  for  the  table  and  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  all 
ducks  for  exhibition. 

47.  History. — Moubray  mentions  the  Rouen  as  the  first 
common  duck  that  came  into  England,  and  states  that  it  came 
from  France.  Others  have  claimed  that  it  existed  in  many 
localities  and  was  domesticated  from  the  Mallard  duck.  These 
ducks  have  been  known  by  many  names,  the  most  common 
being  the  Rhone  and  the  Rouen  ducks.  They  were  developed 
in  France,  and  were  taken  from  there  into  England,  where 
they  were  changed  into  large  ducks  having  beautiful  plumage 
color  and  markings,  and  exceptional  quality  as  table  poultry. 
They  are  generally  used  for  crossing  with  other  breeds,  and 
their  influence  is  visible  in  most  of  the  ducks  commonly  bred 
for  market. 

48.  Description. — The  general  appearance  of  Rouen 
ducks  is  shown  in  the  color  illustration.  They  have  long, 
heavy  body  formation;  full,  deep  breasts,  and  low-set  keel. 
Their  legs  are  short  and  their  carriage  is  almost  horizontal. 
In  the  males,  the  bill  is  green,  shaded  with  yellow;  the  eyes 
are  dark  or  hazel;  the  shanks  and  toes,  dark  orange  red;  the 


§  14  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  657 

head  and  the  neck  to  near  the  shoulder  are  a  rich,  briUiant 
green,  bordered  below  with  a  ring  of  white;  the  breast  is  claret 
color,  which  extends  down  between  the  shanks,  where  it  grad- 
ually changes  to  an  ashy-gray  shade,  and  spreads  over  the 
abdomen  and  up  the  sides  in  a  line  with  the  dark  markings 
between  the  tail  and  the  lower  edge  of  the  wings.  The  English 
Standard  describes  this  as  French-gray  ground  color,  penciled 
with  grayish  black.  The  American  Standard  describes  it  as 
steel  gray,  penciled  with  black.  The  center  of  the  back  is  of 
a  gray  shade  conforming  to  that  of  the  under-body  color. 
This  is  bordered  on  both  sides  with  a  rich,  lustrous  green 
which  extends  to  the  wings.  The  flights  are  dark  or  brown; 
other  parts  of  the  wings  are  gray;  the  wing  bars  are  bordered 
with  white  and  very  dark  blue;  the  tail  is  brownish  black, 
edged  with  white.  The  entire  body  plumage  is  rich  in  luster 
and  sheen;  the  head  of  the  males  changes  from  glossy  green 
to  dark  gray  when  the  breeding  season  is  over,  and  resumes 
its  natural  color  in  the  fall. 

In  the  female,  the  bill,  shanks,  and  feet  are  orange;  the 
eyes,  dark;  the  plumage  of  head  and  neck  is  brown,  shaded 
with  darker  colors  from  the  top  of  the  head  well  down  on  to 
the  neck;  the  wing  bars  are  quite  like  those  of  the  males;  the 
body  plumage  is  brown,  each  feather  penciled  with  a  darker 
shade.  This  color  extends  from  i:he  throat  throughout  the 
entire  body  plumage.  In  the  EngHsh  Standard,  the  body 
plumage  of  the  female  is  described  as  golden,  almond,  or 
chestnut  brown;  in  the  American  Standard  it  is  given  as 
golden  brown.  The  body  of  both  males  and  females  should 
have  rich,  brilliant  plumage,  and  the  colors  should  be  well 
defined  and  distinctly  separated.  The  size  of  the  Rouen 
conforms  to  that  of  the  Pekin  and  the  Aylesbury. 

49.  Mating. — In  mating  the  Rouen  ducks  for  the  pro- 
duction of  exhibition  offspring,  equal  attention  must  be  given 
to  the  selection  of  color  and  markings  with  that  required  for 
breeding  the  most  beautifiil  plumage  color  in  Partridge  Cochin 
fowls.  Strains  of  Rouen  ducks  have  been  established  that 
breed  so  true  that  but  few  offspring  have  to  be  discarded. 


658  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  §  14 

To  establish  a  strain  of  this  kind  requires  that  a  start  shall 
be  made  with  males  and  females  selected  from  a  strain  of 
Rouen  ducks  that  is  known  to  have  bred  well  for  many  years. 
To  improve  or  strengthen  a  strain  of  this  kind,  large  Rouen 
females  that  are  perfect  in  color  and  markings  can  be  safely 
bred  into  it. 

Where  Rouen  ducks  are  most  successfully  bred,  they  hatch 
and  rear  their  own  young.  An  enclosure  for  this  purpose  is 
shown  in  Fig.  1.  In  such  an  enclosure  a  drake  and  three  or 
four  ducks  are  confined.  Nests  are  made  inside  of  the  house 
for  the  females  to  lay  their  eggs  and  hatch  their  young.  The 
yard  will  serve  as  an  enclosure  for  them  throughout  the  entire 
year.  The  house  can  be  used  as  a  laying  and  breeding  house 
during  the  spring  and  summer  months,  and  as  a  shelter  during 
the  winter  months.  When  the  ducklings  are  partly  grown, 
the  fence  is  extended  to  the  swimming  pool. 


SWEDISH  DUCK 

50.  Origin. — The  Swedish  duck  is  said  to  have  come 
from  Germany,  and  is  thought  to  have  had  a  common  origin 
with  all  other  blue  ducks. 

51.  Development. — Swedish  ducks,  like  all  other  blue- 
plumaged  varieties,  have  been  developed  chiefly  for  market; 
a  few  have  been  bred  for  exhibition. 

52.  History. — The  original  of  all  blue  ducks  may  have 
been  the  Blue  Termonde,  which  originated  in  Belgium,  prob- 
ably from  intermingling  dark  and  light-colored  ducks.  Dick- 
son mentions  a  variety  of  blue  ducks  found  about  Norfolk, 
England,  and  the  Huttegem  ducks,  which  are  blue  and  white, 
are  said  to  have  been  made  by  crossing  Blue  Termonde  with 
Runner  ducks. 

Blue  ducks  were  brought  from  Germany  to  America,  where 
they  have  been  bred,  improved,  and  admitted  to  the  American 
Standard  as  Blue  Swedish  ducks.  Although  they  differ  some- 
what in  body  formation  from  other  blue  varieties,  it  is  thought 
that  all  breeds  and  varieties  of  ducks  with  blue  or  with  blue 


§  14  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  659 

and  white  plumage  have  been  made  by  crossing  the  original 
Blue  Termonde  with  other  kinds,  the  difference  in  body  for- 
mation resulting  from  the  difference  in  the  kinds  mated  with 
the  Termonde. 

53.  Description. — Swedish  ducks  have  body  formation 
and  carriage  somewhat  like  the  Rouen  ducks,  but  they  are 
smaller.  The  color  of  the  bill  in  the  male  is  dark  willow  green; 
that  of  the  female  is  shaded  with  brown.  The  eyes  of  both 
are  very  dark;  the  plumage  is  a  slaty  blue,  with  a  patch  or 
apron  of  white  on  the  lower  part  of  the  throat.  The  color  of 
the  male  is  darker  than  that  of  the  female.  The  feathers 
should  be  laced  with  a  darker  shade;  the  shanks  and  toes  are 
a  grayish  slate  color. 

The  Blue  Termonde  has  greater  length  of  body  than  the 
Swedish  ducks,  a  more  extended  breast,  and  a  curved  under 
body.  The  plum^age  color  and  markings  are  the  same  as  in 
the  Blue  Swedish  breed. 

The  Huttegem  ducks  are  blue  and  have  a  long  body  forma- 
tion. They  are  somewhat  like  the  Runner  ducks  in  appear- 
ance, except  that  their  carriage  is  less  upright.  Their  plumage 
is  broken-colored  blue  and  white;  the  throat  and  breast  are 
white;  the  remainder  of  the  body  plumage  is  mostly  blue  and 
is  marked  with  white  at  the  ends  of  the  flights  and  tail.  Hutte- 
gem ducks  are  not  regular  in  coloring;  some  show  the  influence 
of  Runner  ducks  by  fawn  shadings  in  parts  of  their  plumage. 

54.  Mating. — The  chief  difficulties  to  overcome  in  the 
breeding  of  blue  ducks  is  the  maintenance  of  color.  Steel 
blue,  as  it  is  called  in  ducks,  and  slaty  blue,  as  it  is  termed 
in  Andalusian  fowls,  is  very  difficult  to  produce  in  a  pleasing 
shade  and  maintain  both  color  and  proper  markings.  Black 
and  blue  are  kindred  colors  in  blue  ducks.  The  edging  of 
black  must  be  separated  from  the  more  delicate  shade  of  cen- 
ter plumage  color.  This  has  always  proved  to  be  a  master 
task  in  all  fowls  that  have  dark  lacing  or  dark  or  black  edging 
bordering  the  plumage.  To  maintain  such  color  and  mark- 
ing requires  line  breeding  of  the  strictest  character.  No  one 
can  hope  to  produce  blue  ducks  having  steel-blue  or  slaty- 


660  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  §  14 

blue  plumage,  edged  around  with  the  darker  shade  approach- 
ing black,  without  breeding  them  so  close  in  line  according 
to  the  chart  mating  system  as  to  establish  a  strain  that  will 
produce  offspring  true  to  color. 

The  softer  shade  of  blue  without  dark  edging  is  less  dif- 
ficult to  produce,  except  that  a  large  percentage  of  the  offspring 
are  likely  to  show  considerable  white  and  the  most  perfect 
of  all  so  produced  will  have  more  or  less  white  in  the  plu- 
mage. This  is  strongly  represented  in  the  Huttegem  ducks, 
which  are  broken  blue  and  white;  the  blue,  a  very  soft  tint, 
is  best  described  as  smoke  blue  or  grayish  blue  color.  To  pro- 
duce this  shade  of  color  and  marking,  males  and  females 
having  a  predominance  of  the  blue  color,  which  is  considerably 
darker  in  the  male  than  in  the  female,  may  be  mated  and  the 
best  offspring  from  such  matings  selected  and  used  for  breeding 
purposes. 

To  produce  the  darker  shade  and  markings  of  the  Andalusian 
color  requires  the  selection  of  ducks  that  have  the  shade  of 
color  and  markings  desired  and  mating  them  to  drakes  having 
this  same  character  and  color  a  shade  or  two  darker  than  the 
female.  The  head  markings  of  the  male  shotdd  be  of  a  very 
dark  blue,  approaching  black;  and  both  the  male  and  female 
should  have  a  small  patch  of  white  at  the  throat.  As  the 
white  is  apt  to  show  more  in  the  offspring  than  in  the  parent 
ducks,  less  than  is  desirable  in  the  offspring  should  be  present 
in  the  breeding  dUcks. 

To  produce  offspring  of  the  proper  breed  formation,  ducks 
having  this  to  a  marked  degree  should  be  selected.  Blue 
ducks  may  be  bred  to  either  the  Rouen,  Aylesbury,  or  Runner 
duck  types.  To  produce  any  of  these  requires  a  carefiil  selec- 
tion of  ducks  and  drakes  that  have  the  shape  desirable  in  the 
offspring  and  the  color  and  markings  desired. 


§  14  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  .  661 


NEW  BREEDS  OF  DUCKS 

55.  Several  new  breeds  of  ducks  have  been  made  within 
the  last  few  years.  Among  the  most  prominent  of  these  are 
the  Blue  Orpington,  the  Buff  Orpington,  the  Khaki,  and  the 
Partridge.  All  of  them  have  been  made  by  cross-mating  other 
breeds. 

BLUE    ORPINGTON    DUCK 

56.  The  Blue  Orpington  duck  was  produced  by  the  inter- 
mingling of  several  breeds  of  ducks  for  the  production  of  the 
Buff  Orpington  duck.  The  offspring  from  some  of  the  crosses 
came  with  blue  plumage  color  intermingled  with  white.  These 
were  selected  and  mated  for  the  production  of  color,  and  the 
Blue  Orpington  ducks  developed  from  them.  They  have  the 
same  breed  characters  as  the  Buff  Orpington  duck,  and  their 
color  and  markings  are  quite  like  those  of  the  Swedish  ducks. 
When  mating  them,  the  shape  of  the  breeders  must  conform 
to  that  of  the  Buff  Orpington  duck;  the  breeders  should  be 
selected  for  color  and  markings  the  same  as  described  for  blue 
ducks. 

BUFF    ORPINGTON    DUCK 

57.  Buff  ducks  came  from  matings  made  to  produce 
Khaki  ducks.  Some  offspring  from  the  crosses  showed  a 
tendency  to  buff  plumage ;  they  were  selected,  mated,  and  their 
offspring  remated  for  color.  Mr.  Cook,  who  originated  the 
first  buff  ducks,  claims  to  have  produced  them  from  the  inter- 
mingling of  Runner,  Rouen,  and  Aylesbury  ducks.  He  named 
the  variety  the  Buff  Orpington  duck  to  conform  to  the  name 
of  his  farm  and  his  Buff  Orpington  fowls. 

58.  Origin. — The  Buff  Orpington  duck  was  made  by 
intermingling  Runner,  Aylesbury,  Rouen,  and  black  ducks. 
The  buff  offspring  coming  from  these  matings  were  selected 
and  bred  for  color. 

'  59.  Development. — The  Buff  Orpington  ducks  were  first 
developed  for  egg  production,  but  little  attention  being  given 


662  .  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  §  14 

to  color  and  markings.     Later  they  were  bred  and  improved 
for  exhibition  color. 

60.  History. — The  first  Buff  Orpington  ducks  were  pro- 
duced in  England.  Later  other  strains  were  made,  some  of 
which  were  started  in  Australia,  where  they  were  bred  for  egg 
production.  They  have  been  entered  in  competition  with  the 
fawn-and-white  Runner  ducks  in  the  egg-laying  contests  held 
in  that  country.  From  there  and  from  England  they  were 
brought  to  America,  where  they  have  been  bred  for  exhibition 
and  for  egg  production.  They  were  brought  prominently 
into  public  notice  as  exhibition  ducks  through  having  been 
exhibited  at  the  Crystal  Palace  Show  in  England.  About  the 
same  time  they  were  introduced  in  like  manner  in  both  the 
United  States  and  Canada,  since  which  time  they  have  been 
more  carefiilly  bred  for  the  dual  purpose  of  egg  production 
and  beautiful  plumage  for  exhibition. 

61.  Description. — ^The  shape  or  breed  characters  of 
Orpington  ducks  is  a  compromise  between  the  Rouen  and  the 
Pekin  duck.  They  have  great  length  of  body  and  are  broad, 
deep,  and  well  roimded  in  body  formation.  They  are  remark- 
able for  length  of  breast  and  for  the  production  of  meat  for 
table  purposes.  The  drakes  weigh  from  7  to  9  poimds;  ducks 
from  6  to  8  poimds.  Their  plumage  color  is  described  as  an 
even  shade  of  fawn-buff  throughout.  The  upper  portion  of 
the  neck  and  the  head  of  the  drake  is  several  shades  darker 
than  the  body  plumage;  the  bill,  yellow  with  a  dark  bean  at 
tip;  the  shanks  and  feet,  yellow  or  orange  yellow;  the  eyes, 
dark,  with  a  blue  pupil.  In  fact,  the  body  color  of  this  variety 
is  a  mild  shade  of  fawn-buff,  the  drakes  having  head  color 
similar  to  the  Rouen  drakes.  Their  carriage  is  more  upright 
than  that  of  the  Rouen,  but  not  so  erect  as  that  of  the  Riumer 
duck, 

62.  Mating. — In  selecting  Buff  Orpington  ducks  for  pro- 
ducing offspring  of  the  richest  plumage  color,  both  the  male 
and  the  female  must  have  an  even  shade  of  rich  fawn-buff 
having  sheen  or  gloss  upon  the  surface;  the  head  of  the  drake 


§  14  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  663 

shovdd  be  considerably  darker  than  the  body  color;  the  bill, 
shanks,  and  feet,  a  bright  orange  yellow.  Bodies  of  great 
length  are  to  be  preferred,  as  this  is  indicative  of  prolific  egg 
production.  The  neck  of  the  Buff  Orpington  duck  is  short 
in  comparison  with  that  of  the  Runner  duck.  This  should 
be  considered  when  selecting  ducks  for  breeding  purposes. 
Ducks  of  this  character  are  apt  to  produce  offspring  that  will 
be  attractive  for  exhibition  and  prolific  egg  producers  as  well. 


KHAKI    DUCK 

63.  The  Khaki  duck  is  thought  to  have  been  made  by 
crossing  Rouen  and  fawn-and-white  Rimner  ducks.  Through 
these  crosses,  ducks  were  produced  that  resembled  the  Rouen 
in  general  body  formation  but  were  smaller  and  had  Khaki, 
or  buckskin,  plimiage  color.  It  has  been  claimed  that  some 
of  the  best  ducks  so  produced  were  selected  and  bred  again 
with  Runner  ducks,  and  from  such  crosses  were  produced 
females  of  the  Runner  type  having  penciling  in  the  back  and 
body  plumage,  some  of  which  were  again  crossed  with  Runner 
males  to  establish  a  variety  of  Rimner  ducks  having  more  or 
less  marking  in  the  body  plumage. 


PARTRIDGE    DUCK" 

64.  The  Partridge  duck  was  produced  from  the  matings 
made  to  produce  the  Khaki  ducks.  From  the  offspring  pro- 
duced from  these  matings  specimens  were  selected  which  had 
color  and  markings  resembling  the  partridge  color  in  poultry. 
These  offspring  were  mated  and  remated  until  a  variety  color 
was  established,  the  drakes  having  color  and  markings  some- 
what like  the  Mallard,  arid  the  females  resembling  in  color 
and  markings  the  Brown  Leghorn  females.  These,  like  the 
E^aki  and  the  Orpington  ducks,  were  developed  for  egg  pro- 
duction, no  attention  being  paid  to  color  or  markings  other 
than  to  have  them  distinguished  from  the  other  breeds.  But 
few  of  them  have  been  bred  even  in  their  native  land  of 
Australia.     They  belong  to  the  class  of  ducks  that  have  been 


664  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  §  14 

bred  there  for  egg  production  and  they,  like  others,  have 
become  popular  from  the  fact  that  they  have  produced  more 
than  12  dozen  eggs  per  year,  some  of  them  being  credited 
with  having  produced  as  many  eggs  as  have  been  produced 
by  the  Runner  and  Orpington  ducks. 


GEESE 


ORIGIN,  DEVELOPMENT,   HISTORY,   AND 
DESCRIPTION 

65.  Origin. — Nothing  definite  is  known  of  the  origin  of 
geese.  They  were  domesticated  many  centuries  before  the 
Christian  era.  They  were  sacred  to  the  goddess  Juno,  and 
it  was  regarded  as  a  sign  of  her  favor  that  in  365  B.  C.  they 
aroused  the  Roman  soldiers  and  saved  the  capital  city.  Italy 
seems  to  have  been  the  home  of  domestic  geese,  and  although 
they  have  been  mentioned  since  the  beginning  of  history,  no 
reference  has  been  made  to  the  originals  from  which  they 
descended.  Scientists  refer  to  the  Graylag  goose  as  the  ances- 
tor of  all  domestic  geese.  This  may  have  been  suggested  by 
the  fact  that  such  geese  have  been  known  to  exist  for  cen- 
turies, and  aU  of  the  earlier  geese  were  gray  or  gray  marked 
with  white. 

White-plumaged  geese  were  not  mentioned  in  early  days. 
There  is  a  legend  to  the  effect  that  a  small,  white  swan  was 
wounded  and  dropped  into  a  lake  where  domestic  geese  were 
kept.  Being  imable  to  fly,  the  swan  remained  with  the  geese, 
aU  of  which  were  gray.  Later  white-plttmed  offspring  were 
hatched  and  were  named  Snowdrops.  In  this  way  white 
geese  are  said  to  have  originated — doubtless  a  fanciful  origin. 

G6.  Development. — The  earliest  development  of  geese 
was  directed  toward  having  them  of  attractive  appearance 
and  for  the  advantages  derived  from  their  feathers.  But  little 
attention  was  given  to  them  other  than  to  have  them  beau- 
tiftil,  so  that  they  might  be  a  credit  to  the  goddess  Juno,  to 


^ 


§  14  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  665 

whom  they  were  held  sacred.  Later,  they  were  selected  and 
separated  into  variety  colors,  and  following  this,  different 
breeds  were  made. 

67.  History. — Geese  are  said  to  have  been  held  sacred 
in  Egypt  more  than  4,000  years  ago,  and  they  have  been  con- 
nected with  many  of  the  historical  events  of  the  world.  They 
are  credited  with  having  attained  the  age  of  a  century,  and 
were  considered  as  oracles,  because  they  would  announce  the 
coming  of  storms  and  unusual  occurrences.  At  the  beginning 
of  the  Christian  era,  the  agriculturists  of  Rome  gave  special 
attention  to  rearing  geese  for  domestic  purposes,  some  of  which 
were  later  sent  to  England.  Although  it  may  not  be  safe  to 
say  that  domestic  geese,  as  we  now  have  them,  originated  in 
England,  they  were  made  in  that  country. 

68.  Description. — The  body  formation  of  geese  has 
changed  so  little  as  to  make  the  statement  credible  that  they 
are  the  same  today  as  they  were  1,000  years  ago.  The  earliest 
illustrations  of  them  show  about  the  same  body  formation 
that  exists  today  in  the  common  goose.  There  is  so  little 
difference  in  the  formation  of  the  Embden  and  the  Toulouse 
as  compared  with  the  common  goose  as  to  suggest  that  the 
former  are  an  enlarged  product  of  the  latter.  The  color  of  the 
geese  in  early  days  was  gray,  and  gray  and  white;  a  slight 
reference  is  made  to  geese  with  black  plumage.  A  natural 
conclusion  is  that  the  early  geese  were  very  dark  gray  approach- 
ing black,  light  gray,  and  gray  mixed  with  white.  This  descrip- 
tion would  account  for  the  three  colors  mentioned.  They  are 
said  to  have  weighed  from  4  to  12  pounds  each.  Such  records 
might  refer  to  both  ducks  and  geese,  since  both  were  known 
as  water  fowl.  Two  varieties  of  geese  are  described  as  having 
existed  in  Italy;  one  was  white,  with  bill,  shanks,  and  feet  of 
an  orange  color;  a  pair  weighed  from  20  to  24  pounds.  The 
other  variety  had  broken  colors,  white  and  gray;  otherwise  the 
geese  were  like  those  of  the  white  variety. 


666  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  §  14 


AFRICAN  GOOSE 

69.  Origin. — The  African  goose  is  claimed  to  be  native 
to  Africa;  it  is  regarded  as  a  distinct  breed,  and  was  named 
for  its  place  of  origin. 

70.  Development. — ^The  African  geese  have  been  devel- 
oped in  America,  where  they  have  been  made  from  originals 
of  questionable  quality  into  one  of  the  best  breeds  of  geese. 

71.  History. — The  African  geese  have  also  been  called 
Hongkong  geese;  they  are  sometimes  confused  with  the  brown 
Chinese  variety.  The  theory  has  been  advanced  that  the 
African  geese  were  produced  by  crossing  brown  Chinese  with 
Toulouse,  and  improving  the  offspring  by  selection.  Edward 
Brown,  of  England,  states  that  they  were  made  in  Africa  by 
crossing  the  brown  Chinese  with  some  other  breed,  perhaps 
the  Toulouse,  and  were  then  brought  from  Africa  to  America. 
However  this  may  be,  they  are  one  of  the  most  highly  con- 
sidered of  all  breeds  of  geese,  and  are  bred  in  some  localities 
for  market. 

72.  Description. — ^The  body  formation  of  African  geese 
is  plimip  and  compact,  having  both  length  and  depth;  the  neck 
is  fairly  long;  the  head,  long,  broad,  and  deep,  with  a  strong 
bill,  and  a  considerable  knob  at  the  base  of  the  bill  in  front  of 
the  eyes,  and  a  prominent  dewlap.  The  head,  bill,  and  knob 
of  both  males  and  females  are  very  dark  or  black;  the  eyes, 
dark;  the  body  plumage,  gray,  lighter  in  the  breast  than  in 
other  sections;  there  is  a  dark  line  down  the  back  of  the  neck, 
reaching  on  to  the  shoulders;  the  shanks  and  feet  are  dark 
orange.  Adult  males  weigh  20  poimds  or  more;  young  males 
and  adult  females,  from  16  to  18  pounds;  young  females  from 
12  to  14  pounds.  This  breed  of  geese  has  a  dewlap  growing 
beneath  the  bill  down  on  to  the  throat.  This  is  more  prom- 
inent in  the  males  than  in  the  females,  but  it  becomes  quite 
prominent  in  both  as  they  advance  in  years.  Offspring  less 
than  a  year  old  may  have  but  little  knob,  and  so  little  dewlap 
as  to  be  imperceptible. 


:      I 


^ 


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P"W 


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61 
Pi 

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^. 


§  14  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  667 

73.  Mating. — In  selecting  African  geese  for  breeding  pur- 
poses, the  body  formation  should  receive  marked  attention. 
The  breast  and  the  under  part  of  the  body  should  be  prom- 
inent; the  head  points  and  breed  characters  must  be  well  dis- 
played, and  the  plimiage  should  be  a  soft,  attractive  shade 
that  inclines  toward  yellow  rather  than  toward  a  smutty  shade 
of  gray.  The  stripe  of  dark  gray  or  brown  that  begins  on  top 
of  the  head  and  continues  down  the  back  of  the  neck  to  the 
shoulders  should  be  very  pronounced.  No  male  or  female 
of  this  breed  should  be  used  in  mating  unless  breed  characters 
are  so  marked  as  to  stamp  it  on  sight  as  an  African  goose. 


CHINESE  GOOSE 

74.  Origin. — The  Chinese  goose  is  of  two  varieties; 
both  originated  in  the  Oriental  countries  and  are  credited  to 
China. 

75.  Development. — The  Chinese  geese  were  first  devel- 
oped in  China  and  India,  and  from  those  countries  were  scat- 
tered throughout  the  world.  The  most  recent  improvement 
in  these  geese  has  been  made  in  England  and  America. 

76.  History. — The  Chinese  goose  has  been  known  by 
various  names,  among  them  China,  Knob,  Hongkong,  Asiatic, 
Guinea,  Spanish,  and  Polish.  Many  kinds  of  geese  may  have 
been  included  under  these  names.  They  were  separated  into 
two  varieties,  the  Brown  and  the  White,  and  were  named 
Chinese  geese.  During  recent  years  many  of  them  have  been 
bred  for  market,  and  they  have  also  been  selected  and  bred 
for  beautiful  plumage  color. 

77.  Description. — The  peculiar  form  and  general  appear- 
ance of  the  Chinese  geese  is  shown  in  the  color  illustration. 
The  Brown  Chinese  geese  have  color  and  markings  the  same 
as  the  African  geese,  except  that  the  Chinese  are  darker.  The 
White  Chinese  geese  have  pure  white  plimiage;  the  bill,  knob, 
shanks,  and  toes  are  orange;  the  eyes  are  blue.  Geese  of  both 
varieties  have  a  knob  with  but  little  or  no  dewlap  until  more 
than  a  year  old. 


668  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  §  14 

78.  Mating. — Two  methods  of  mating  are  practiced  for 
the  breeding  of  the  two  varieties  of  Chinese  geese.  One 
method  of  mating  is  used  for  the  production  of  small  geese 
that  conform  to  standard  weights,  which  are  12  pounds  for 
mature  males,  10  pounds  for  young  males  and  mature  females, 
and  8  pounds  for  young  females.  For  such  matings,  small 
mature  females  are  mated  with  males  that  are  proportionately 
small.  In  the  other  method  of  mating,  which  is  used  for  obtain- 
ing larger  offspring  than  would  naturally  be  produced  in  this 
breed,  the  largest  geese  are  mated  with  large  males  of  the 
same  variety.  By  the  selection  of  the  small  females,  geese 
that  are  small  and  trim  are  produced  for  exhibition.  From 
the  other  matings,  market  geese  are  bred.  In  each  kind  of 
mating,  color  and  markings  must  conform  to  standard  demands, 
and  breed  characters  must  be  conformed  to  without  the 
slightest  deviation.  

EGYPTIAN  GOOSE 

79.  Origin. — The  Egyptian  goose  was  first  found  wild 
in  Africa.  The  Egyptian  geese  were  plentiful  along  the  Nile, 
and  were  well  distributed  throughout  Egypt. 

80.  Development. — The  development  of  the  Egyptian 
geese  was  brought  about  by  their  domestication.  But  little 
trouble  was  experienced  in  accomplishing  this,  and  the  Egyptian 
is  now  numbered  among  the  standard  varieties  of  geese. 

81.  History. — The  Egyptian  geese  are  said  to  have  been 
held  sacred  by  religious  orders.  It  is  thought  that  their  out- 
line can  be  traced  on  the  tombs  and  sarcophagi  of  ancient 
times.  They  have  been  gradually  distributed  throughout 
the  world,  and  are  bred  principally  for  their  beauty. 

82.  Description. — The  Egyptian  geese  are  unattractive 
in  form  but  have  beautifully  colored  plumage.  They  have 
long  shanks  and  upright  carriage.  Their  body  plumage  is  a 
mixture  of  gray  and  black,  emblazoned  with  rich  metallic 
luster;  their  breasts  are  shaded  with  chestnut  and  buff.  Most 
of  their  plumage  is  marked  and  stippled  with  a  darker  shade 


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§  14  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  669 

of   color.     They   have   reddish-blue   bills   and   reddish-yellow 
shanks  and  toes. 

83.  Mating. — Male  and  female  Egyptian  geese  are  so 
nearly  alike  in  body  formation  and  plumage  color  that  it  is 
difficult  to  distinguish  between  the  sexes.  They  prefer  to 
mate  in  pairs,  and  if  two  or  three  females  are  kept  with 
one  male,  he  may  mate  with  all,  or  he  may  refuse  to  notice 
more  than  one.  If  more  males  than  females  are  kept  in  a 
flock  during  the  breeding  season,  they  will  quarrel  continu- 
ally. Egyptian  geese  will  breed  in  confinement,  but  they  are 
so  ill-natured  that  they  cannot  be  kept  in  confinement  with 
other  breeds.  They  will  build  their  own  nests,  lay  6  or  8  eggs, 
sit  on  them  for  4  weeks,  and  when  the  goslings  are  hatched 
will  care  for  them.  Geese  of  this  breed  are  kept  more  for 
ornament  than  for  any  other  purpose,  and  shoidd  be  fed  and 
housed  the  same  as  other  wild  varieties. 


EMBDEN  GOOSE 

84.  Origin. — The  original  Embden  goose  came  from 
Holland,  where  the  breed  was  made  by  intermingling  large 
white  Italian  geese  with  other  white  geese.  Some  were  taken 
from  Holland  into  England,  where  they  were  bred  and  improved. 

85.  Development. — The  early  development  of  the 
Embden  geese  was  for  improvement  for  table  use.  They 
were  bred  and  fed  for  increased  size,  and  were  selected  later 
and  beautified  for  exhibition. 

86.  History. — The  Embden  geese  were  named  for  a  town 
in  Hanover.  The  same  kind  of  geese  were  brought  to  Amer- 
ica and  were  named  Bremen  geese,  having  come  from  the 
port  of  Bremen  in  Germany.  Later,  they  were  named  Embden 
geese,  and  as  such  they  have  been  admitted  to  all  Standards. 

87.  Description. — Embden  geese  are  large  and  beauti- 
fully formed.  The  under  part  of  their  body  is  crescent  or 
canoe  shaped;  their  backs  are  fairly  straight;  their  bodies  are 


670  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  §  14 

rounded  and  well  proportioned.  They  should  not  grow  a  dew- 
lap until  they  are  several  years  old,  and  even  then  the  dewlap 
should  be  small.  Loose  skin  that  hangs  in  pouches  under  the 
body  is .  undesirable  in  this  breed  of  geese.  Embden  geese 
have  blue  eyes,  orange  bill,  shanks,  and  toes,  and  pure  white 
plumage.  They  are  of  medium  size,  the  males  weighing  from 
18  to  20  poimds  according  to  their  age,  and  the  females  from 
16  to  18  poimds. 

88.  Mating. — When  mating  Embden  geese  for  the  pro- 
duction of  market  poultry,  size  and  vigor  are  the  chief  con- 
siderations. When  mating  them  for  the  ptupose  of  producing 
offspring  for  exhibition,  large  females  that  have  bright  orange- 
colored  bills  and  shanks  and  pure  white  plumage  should 
be  selected  and  mated  with  yoimg  males  that  are  large 
and  have  perfect  color;  both  males  and  females  should  be 
entirely  free  from  dewlap  or  loose  pouches  of  skin  under  the 
body.  Perfect  body  formation  should  have  the  greatest  con- 
sideration when  the  breeding  stock  is  selected. 

To  increase  size  in  Embden  geese,  mating  with  the  Toulouse 
geese  has  been  resorted  to.  From  such  crosses,  large  white 
geese  have  been  produced,  but  such  offspring  are  apt  to  have 
such  defects  as  dewlap,  dark  feathers  in  body  plumage,  and  a 
smoky  appearance  in  the  imder  plumage.  Geese  that  have 
been  so  produced  will,  in  their  second  year,  show  the  peculiar 
pouchy  appearance  in  the  imder  part  of  the  body  that  is  so 
marked  in  the  Toulouse  geese.  All  such  defects  should  be 
avoided  in  selecting  breeders  to  produce  the  best  quality  in 
Embden  geese.  " 

TOULOUSE  GOOSE 

89.  Origin. — The  Toulouse  goose  was  made  by  select- 
ing the  best  from  among  the  original  gray  variety  and  improv- 
ing them  by  breeding  and  feeding  for  size  and  color. 

90.  Development. — Toulouse  geese  were  first  developed 
in  France.  They  were  greatly  improved  in  England,  and  are 
plentifully  bred  in  America.  They  are  the  largest  of  all 
domestic  geese,  and  are  highly  valued  for  their  many  uses. 


§  14  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  671 

91.  History. — In  early  days,  Toulouse  geese  were  selected 
and  bred  only  for  market.  They  have  since  been  adopted 
throughout  the  world,  and  have  been  both  crossed  with  other 
breeds  of  geese  and  bred  in  their  purity. 

92.  Description. — The  most  useful  type  of  Toulouse 
geese  is  shown  in  the  color  illustration.  Form  and  color  are 
displayed  without  an  unusual  amoimt  of  dewlap,  and  but 
little  pouchiness  on  the  under  part  of  the  body.  Toulouse 
geese  are  both  light  and  dark  gray,  marked  with  white.  The 
upper  part  of  the  body,  about  the  abdomen,  is  very  light  gray — 
almost  white.  Their  eyes  are  brown;  their  bills,  shanks,  and 
toes  are  deep  orange.  Mature  males  weigh  25  pounds;  imma- 
ture males  and  mature  females,  20  pounds;  immature  females, 
16  pounds.  These  weights  can  be  increased  by  selecting  and 
feeding  for  speedy  growth. 

93.  Mating. — Toulouse  geese  reproduce  true  to  form  and 
color.  For  the  production  of  exhibition  stock,  large,  mature 
females  that  have  a  perfect  body  formation  shotild  be  mated 
with  males  1  or  2  years  old  that  are  not  only  large  but  are 
perfect  in  form  and  color,  and  have  a  rich  glossy  plumage. 
Toulouse  geese  will  continue  to  breed  for  many  years,  but  it 
is  always  desirable  to  use  males  that  are  less  than  4  years  old. 
The  females  may  be  used  as  breeders  as  long  as  their  eggs  are 
fertile. 

WILD,   OR  CANADIAN,   GOOSE 

94.  Origin. — The  Wild,  or  Canadian,  goose  originally 
existed  in  a  wild  state  in  the  northern  parts  of  America. 

95.  Development. — The  Wild,  or  Canadian,  geese  have 
been  captured,  their  wings  pinioned  to  prevent  their  flying, 
and  bred  in  domestication.  Their  size  has  been  increased 
by  care  and  regular  feeding. 

96.  History, — ^Large  flocks  of  wild  geese  like  those  of 
Canada  existed  in  many  parts  of  the  world.  Some  were  cap- 
tured and  confined  in  parks  for  ornamentation.  Following 
this,  they  were  bred  in  domestication,  and  later  they  were 


672  DUCKS  AND  GEESE  §  14 

crossed   with  other  breeds;  from  such   crosses,   the  mongrel 
hybrid  geese  have  been  produced. 

97.  Description. — The  Wild,  or  Canadian,  geese  have 
long,  slender  bodies,  and  long,  slim  necks.  Their  bills,  shanks, 
and  toes  are  black;  their  neck  is  black,  with  white  markings 
about  the  throat;  their  body  plumage  is  dark,  marked  with 
gray;  the  under  plumage  of  the  rear^  part  of  the  body  is  mostly 
white.  Mature  males  weigh  12  pounds;  young  males  and 
mature  females,  10  pounds;  immature  females,  8  pounds. 

98.  Mating. — ^Wild,  or  Canadian,  geese  will  mate  in  pairs 
and  will  be  constant  in  their  domestic  relations.  Sometimes 
they  will  mate  with  geese  of  other  breeds,  and  when  this  occurs 
they  are  as  constant  as  with  their  own  kind.  When  left  to 
themselves  they  will  select  their  mates,  build  their  nests,  and 
rear  their  young. 

When  they  are  bred  true,  special  attention  must  be  given 
to  selecting  large  males  and  females  that  have  the  most 
attractive  plumage  color.  The  difference  that  exists  among 
them  is  that  some  have  plumage  of  a  more  brilliant  finish 
than  others.  The  more  brilliant  plimiage  resiilts  from  a  better 
environment  and  proper  feeding,  and  the  reverse  is  caused  by 
lack  of  care. 

To  keep  geese  of  this  breed  in  confinement,  the  first  joint 
of  the  wings  from  which  the  flight  feathers  grow  must  be  sev- 
ered. This  is  called  pinioning,  and  is  practiced  with  all  kinds 
of  wild  water  fowl  that  have  their  liberty  in  domestication. 


NEW  BREEBS  OF  GEESE 

99.  An  attempt  has  been  made  to  create  a  breed  of  geese 
with  buff-colored  plimiage.  This  has  been  accomplished  with 
a  slight  degree  of  success.  Those  so  far  seen  are  yellow  or 
cream  colored,  with  deeper  buff  markings  on  the  back  and 
wings  and  on  parts  of  the  breast.  But  few  of  these  have  been 
shown,  and  their  cultivation  has  been  so  sHght  as  to  attract 
but  little  attention. 


